Some of us don’t mind eating an unvaried diet of the same few foods, day in and day out, year after year. Others need more variety in their diet to accommodate differing tastes, overall compliance, and the simple practicality of eating with family and friends.

With all of the different protein options available, along with some creativity, you will never have to endure a repetitive diet again. Let’s go over a list of 20 high-quality, high-protein, low-carbohydrate foods to make your diet varied, interesting, and, most of all, effective.

Editor’s Note: The content on Breaking Muscle is meant to be informative in nature, but it should not be taken as medical advice. When starting a new training regimen, diet plan, and/or supplement protocol, it is always a good idea to consult with a trusted medical professional. We are not a medical resource. The opinions and articles on this site are not intended for use as diagnosis, prevention, and/or treatment of health problems. They are not substitutes for individualized consulting with a qualified medical professional.

High-Protein, Low-Carbohydrate Foods

• Benefits of a High-Protein Diet
• 20 High-Protein, Low-Carbohydrate Foods
• Sample High-Protein Menu Plan

The Benefits of a High-Protein, Low-Carb Diet

While protein does function in the repair and building of muscle tissue, it also is used by our bodies for more biological, less obvious, functions including make hormones and enzymes.

Protein also beats fat and carbohydrates for the thermic effect of food (TEF) — the increase in your metabolic rate that naturally occurs after eating. A higher TEF essentially means that you can eat more of it, compared to the two other macronutrients, with less chance of those calories being stored as body fat. (1)

Additionally, protein has a higher satiating effect than the other macronutrients. You’ll feel more full after a meal rich in protein, compared to a meal that’s carb- or fat-dominant. (2) All these benefits of protein can combine to make you leaner, more muscular, more satisfied, and potentially more healthy overall — just by focusing on a relatively high-protein diet.

Depending on your individual goals and current body composition, protein is typically prescribed at 0.8 to 1.25 grams per pound of body weight (1.76 to 2.75 grams per kilogram of body weight). Because athletes and lifters have varying goals for their target weight and body composition, the total calories and macronutrient breakdown are calculated respectively for weight loss, muscular weight gain, or maintenance.

Since protein is most often the macronutrient not drastically changed depending on your specific goal — while carbohydrates and fats are significantly scaled up and down — incorporating enough high-protein, low-carbohydrate food items can be an important part of designing a successful nutrition plan. 

The 20 Best High-Protein, Low-Carb Foods

Your individual daily meals certainly don’t need to include each of these foods throughout the day — that would be beyond impractical. However, regularly rotating your protein choices can deliver a variety of micronutrients (including vitamins and minerals), while also adjusting your macronutrients (total carb and fat intake).

While the foods listed are all relatively high in protein and low in carbohydrates, the fat content varies, which allows you to more accurately choose foods that fit your individual plan and goals. Try to get past any reluctance to trying some new foods or new methods of cooking. No rule says your options are limited to “grilled or boiled.”

Eggs

Eggs contain protein and healthy fats. They can be prepared in omelets, stews, scrambles, and frittatas to which meats, vegetables, cheeses, and herbs are often added. This provides a variety of flavors and textures. Hard or soft-boiled eggs can also make a convenient, portable snack, and can be used to complete a range of salads from classic egg salad to a comprehensive “chef’s salad.”

• Serving Size: One large egg
• Protein: 6 grams
• Fat: 5 grams
• Carbohydrates: 1 gram
• Calories: 74 calories

Egg Whites

Using exclusively egg whites in an omelet or scramble is a way to bump up a meal’s protein content without adding extra carbohydrates or fat. The whites can also be used in smoothies and muffins for added texture and volume, along with additional protein. Pasteurized liquid egg whites, sold in cartons, provide convenience because they do not have to be painstakingly separated from the yolks in a whole egg.

• Serving Size: ½ cup
• Protein: 13 grams
• Fat: 0 grams
• Carbohydrates: 1 gram
• Calories: 63 calories

Salmon

Salmon contains protein and heart-healthy omega-three fatty acids. (3) Because it contains a moderate amount of fat, it has a smooth mouthfeel unlike some more lean fish. It can be pan-fried, roasted, poached, broiled, or grilled, or even served over a salad. Salmon is also available canned and pre-cooked, making it a convenient, go-to source of protein when short on time.

• Serving Size: 6 ounces
• Protein: 40 grams
• Fat: 22 grams
• Carbohydrates: 0 grams
• Calories: 236 calories

Sardines

Sardines, like salmon, are another source of protein and omega-three fatty acids. The fresh variety can be similarly pan-fried, broiled, roasted, or grilled, or served over a salad. They are commonly available canned, packed either in water or oil, sometimes available with a variety of herbs, seasonings, and sauces, making them another convenient source of pre-cooked protein. Oil-packed sardines will contain higher levels of fats.

• Serving Size: 6 ounces
• Protein: 42 grams
• Fat: 19 grams
• Carbohydrates: 0 grams
• Calories: 354 calories

Tuna 

Tuna is a low-fat source of protein. Again, the fresh variety can be pan-fried, baked, or grilled, or served over a salad. It is commonly available canned or in pouches, packed in water or oil. Oil-packed tuna will contain higher levels of fats.

• Serving Size: 6 ounces
• Protein: 42 grams
• Fat: 3 grams
• Carbohydrates: 0 grams
• Calories: 190 calories

Shrimp

Shrimp is a lean shellfish that has relatively few calories for its volume. A relatively large amount can be eaten without necessarily “overeating,” making it a satisfying choice for people on weight-loss diets.

It can be grilled, sauteed, baked, or skewered for kebabs. It’s also a popular choice for tacos, burritos, and seafood salads. High-quality shrimp may be served raw in shrimp ceviche — a salad in which acid from citrus juice and onion denature its protein, instead of traditional cooking.

• Serving Size: 6 ounces
• Protein: 35 grams
• Fat: 3 grams
• Carbohydrates: 2 grams
• Calories: 180 calories

Pork Chops

Pork chops are a source of protein with varying amounts of fat depending on the cut. Because some cuts are fairly lean and subject to dryness, they are sometimes brined or marinated before cooking, adding both moisture and flavor. They are suitable for pan-frying, grilling, or roasting. They are available bone-in or boneless.

• Serving Size: 6 ounces
• Protein: 36 grams
• Fat: 18 grams
• Carbohydrates: 0 grams
• Calories: 306 calories

Pork Shoulder

Pork shoulder is a moderate-fat source of protein. It is a traditional barbecue item and can be braised, smoked, roasted, or skewered. It can be used in tacos, sandwiches, salads, soups, stews, and pasta, or served on its own as a main entree.

• Serving Size: 6 ounces
• Protein: 63 grams
• Fat: 30 grams
• Carbohydrates: 0 grams
• Calories: 454 calories

Ham

Ham is a relatively lean source of protein. It is a pork leg cut that has been preserved by curing. It is sometimes additionally preserved by smoking. It can be consumed in sandwiches, omelets, frittatas, pasta, rice dishes, salads, or as a main entree.

• Serving Size: 6 ounces
• Protein: 37 grams
• Fat: 8 grams
• Carbohydrates: 2 grams
• Calories: 236 calories

Sirloin Steak

Sirloin is one of the leaner cuts of steak. It can be prepared by grilling, roasting, pan-frying, or skewered for kebabs. Like most cuts of steak, it is commonly served as a main entree, but can be served over salads, alongside eggs at breakfast, and in sandwiches, fajitas, tacos, omelets, or frittatas.

• Serving Size: 6 ounces
• Protein: 52 grams
• Fat: 8 grams
• Carbohydrates: 0 grams
• Calories: 300 calories

Strip Steak

Strip steak is another relatively lean cut of red meat. It can be prepared in a variety of ways, nearly interchangeable with sirloin.

• Serving Size: 6 ounces
• Protein: 48 grams
• Fat: 6 grams
• Carbohydrates: 0 grams
• Calories: 294 calories

Ribeye Steak

Ribeye steak is a higher-fat steak with much marbling and a strong flavor.  It can be prepared similar to other cuts of steak. The higher fat content should be taken into consideration when preparing and serving, as ribeye will yield a higher calorie meal.

• Serving Size: 6 ounces
• Protein: 40 grams
• Fat: 37 grams
• Carbohydrates: 0 grams
• Calories: 494 calories

Lean Ground Beef

Lean ground beef has a fat content of 5%, which can be preferred over higher fat ground beef options to monitor total calorie intake. It can be used to make hamburgers, meatballs, meat sauce, stuffed peppers, tacos, burritos, or a classic meatloaf.

• Serving Size: 6 ounces
• Protein: 44 grams
• Fat: 10 grams
• Carbohydrates: 0 grams
• Calories: 280 calories

Beef Liver 

A staple of bodybuilding diets back in “the old days,” beef liver and other organ meats have made a comeback on some personal menus thanks to its consumption being dubiously promoted on social media. Like other organ meats, liver has a strong flavor and it tends to either be loved or intensely disliked. It can be prepared by grilling or pan-frying.

• Serving Size: 6 ounces
• Protein: 50 grams
• Fat: 9 grams
• Carbohydrates: 8 grams
• Calories: 324 calories

Cottage Cheese

Cottage cheese is a dairy product consisting of curds and whey from skimmed milk, to which cream is added. It has a sour flavor, and it can be eaten on its own, with pasta, on toast, or with granola, nuts, fruit, or vegetables. It is commonly available in fat-free, 1%, 2%, and 4% (whole or full-fat) varieties.

• Serving Size: 1 cup, 4% (full-fat)
• Protein: 25 grams
• Fat: 8 grams
• Carbohydrates: 8 grams
• Calories: 222 calories

Greek Yogurt

Greek yogurt is yogurt strained of most of its whey, giving it a thicker consistency and higher-protein content than a similar volume of more common, unstrained yogurt. It can be eaten plain, topped with fruit, granola, seeds, or nuts, and used in smoothies. It is available in fat-free, 2%, and full-fat varieties. Note that many pre-flavored Greek yogurts often contain higher levels of carbohydrates from added sugar.

• Serving Size: 1 cup, 2%
• Protein: 24 grams
• Fat: 3 grams
• Carbohydrates: 9 grams
• Calories: 160 calories

Chicken Breast

Chicken breast is a quintessential muscle-building food because it is a low-fat source of protein that can be eaten in a variety of forms. It can be poached, grilled, pan-fried, roasted, or skewered for kebabs. It can be cut and served in sandwiches, on salads, in omelets, soups, frittatas, quiches, and tacos, or served as a showcase main entree.

Because of a mild flavor, it can serve as a blank slate for flavor profiles of your choice. Don’t be afraid to experiment with seasonings beyond simple salt and pepper.

• Serving Size: 6 ounces, boneless/skinless
• Protein: 52 grams
• Fat: 6 grams
• Carbohydrates: 0 grams
• Calories: 281 calories

Chicken Thighs

Chicken thighs are a protein source moderate in fat. Like chicken breast, thighs can be eaten in a wide variety of forms. They can be braised, pan-fried, roasted, grilled, or skewered for kebabs. They can also be used in stews, soups, quiches, tacos, sandwiches, and tacos, or used as a main entree.

• Serving Size: 6 ounces, boneless/skinless
• Protein: 42 grams
• Fat: 15 grams
• Carbohydrates: 0 grams
• Calories: 310 calories

Whey Protein Powder

Whey protein powder is a convenient, low-fat, low-carbohydrate protein. It is dried whey, which is the portion of milk that separates from curds during cheesemaking. It is a convenient protein source, with a shaker bottle or blender, a protein shake can be made in seconds and carried out the door.

RELATED: Best Whey Protein Powders

Other items, such as fruit, nut butters, vegetables, and different kinds of milk or milk alternatives can be added to make a customized smoothie. Whey protein can also used in recipes for pancakes, muffins, cakes, and even cookies. Note that scoop portions and specific macronutrients will vary between brands and flavors.

• Serving Size: 1 scoop (31 grams)
• Protein: 24 grams
• Fat: 3 grams
• Carbohydrates: 3 grams
• Calories: 120 calories

Casein Protein Powder

Casein protein powder is another convenient, low-fat, low-carbohydrate protein. It is dried casein, the milk protein of curds. Casein is sometimes considered a “slow digesting” protein, allowing it to increase feelings of satiety and curb hunger for longer periods. (4) The same method and recipes used for whey protein powder can be used for casein. Similarly, the scoop portions and specific macronutrients will vary between brands and flavors.

RELATED: Best Protein Powder

• Serving Size: 1 scoop (33 grams)
• Protein: 24 grams
• Fat: 0 grams
• Carbohydrates: 3 grams
• Calories: 110 calories

Sample High-Protein Menu Plan

Now that you have a list of a wide variety of protein-packed foods, here is an example of a day’s menu for a 200-pound (90.7-kilogram) athlete. Seeing a full day’s plan should help you see how to work high-quality protein choices into your diet.

The sample plan is calculated to provide approximately 1.25 grams of protein per pound (2.75 grams per kilogram) of body weight, 3,500 total calories, 20% of the calories from fat, and the remaining calories from carbohydrates. This is a general, effective guideline for athletes and offseason bodybuilders.

Meal One

• Omelet — 1 cup egg whites, 1 whole egg, 1-ounce ham, ½-cup cooked spinach
• Cream of Wheat cereal — 1 cup
• Banana — 1 medium

Total: 50 grams protein, 9 grams fat, 106 grams carbs, 684 calories

Snack One

• Smoothie — 1 scoop whey protein powder, ½ cup 2% Greek yogurt, 1 tablespoon peanut butter, ½-cup oatmeal, 1 cup frozen fruit, 2 cups water

Total: 45 grams protein, 16 grams fat, 53 grams carbs, 505 calories

Meal Two

• Broccoli — 1 cup, cooked
• Chicken Breast — 6 ounces, boneless/skinless
• Rice — 2 cups
• Avocado — 1 medium

Total: 65 grams protein, 28 grams fat, 107 grams carbs, 949 calories

Snack Two

• Full-Fat (4%) Cottage Cheese — 1 cup
• Granola — 1 cup

Total: 34 grams protein, 15 grams fat, 57 grams carbohydrates, 390 calories

Meal Three

• Asparagus — 1 cup, cooked
• Sirloin Steak — 6 ounces
• Potato — 10 ounces, baked
• Butter — 1 tablespoon

Total: 67 grams protein, 19 grams fat, 118 grams carbohydrates, 905 calories

Daily Total

• Protein — 261 grams
• Fat — 87 grams
• Carbohydrates — 441 grams
• Calories — 3,433 calories — 30% protein, 22% fat, 51% carbohydrates

A Protein-Packed Plan

Now you have the knowledge to work a variety of high-protein foods into your diet without compromising on quality or nutrition, and without settling for a humdrum existence rotating between the same two or three protein sources. Setup an overall plan that suits your physique or performance goals, and make adjustments as needed to ensure success. Get out your calculator, pen and paper, frying pan, and grill, and get to it.

References

1. Westerterp K. R. (2004). Diet induced thermogenesis. Nutrition & metabolism, 1(1), 5. https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-7075-1-5
2. Leidy, H. J., Clifton, P. M., Astrup, A., Wycherley, T. P., Westerterp-Plantenga, M. S., Luscombe-Marsh, N. D., Woods, S. C., & Mattes, R. D. (2015). The role of protein in weight loss and maintenance. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 101(6), 1320S–1329S. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.114.084038
3. Khan, S. U., Lone, A. N., Khan, M. S., Virani, S. S., Blumenthal, R. S., Nasir, K., Miller, M., Michos, E. D., Ballantyne, C. M., Boden, W. E., & Bhatt, D. L. (2021). Effect of omega-3 fatty acids on cardiovascular outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. EClinicalMedicine, 38, 100997. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2021.100997
4. Hoffman, J. R., & Falvo, M. J. (2004). Protein – Which is Best?. Journal of sports science & medicine, 3(3), 118–130.

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The post The 20 Best High-Protein, Low-Carb Foods from a Registered Dietitian appeared first on Breaking Muscle.

Judicious use of a pre-workout can certainly lead to higher intensity sessions that last longer and deliver a greater muscle-building, fat-burning stimulus. However, all pre-workout formulas are designed with different ingredients in different doses, so “one scoop” of something isn’t always comparable to “one scoop” of another mixture.

Knowing what you’re taking, how much, and, more importantly, how your body reacts to those ingredients is essential to get the best results. Before you start your next training session with a high-potency pre-workout, here’s how to know the possible side effects you might encounter.

Editor’s Note: The following information is meant to be informative in nature, but should not be taken as medical advice. The content presented is not intended for use as diagnosis, prevention, and/or treatment of health problems. It is not a substitute for consulting a qualified medical professional.

Pre-Workout Side Effects

• Common Ingredients
• Benefits
• Potential Side Effects

Most Common Pre-Workout Ingredients

Pre-workouts are technically a general category of supplements made up of different mixes with a variety of ingredients. However, some similar types of ingredients tend to pop up across different formulas.

Stimulants

Possibly the most well-known and, for some, most desired, type of ingredient is a straightforward stimulant to bolster physical and mental energy. Caffeine, tyrosine, yohimbine, and theacrine are some of the most common sources of stimulants.

While the majority of pre-workouts contain some form of stimulant, there are many non-stimulant pre-workout mixes that can be just as effective while omitting key energizing ingredients.

Blood Flow Enhancers

Many pre-workouts contain ingredients designed to improve blood circulation throughout the body. This can help to improve “the pump” while training and may increase endurance. Common nitric oxide boosters, sometimes called “NO2 boosters,” include arginine, citrulline, and betaine (not to be confused with beta-alanine, which is an unrelated ingredient with different effects).

Endurance Support

Many pre-workouts improve your physical endurance during a training session. This can either occur physiologically, by improving your body’s capacity for sustained output, or by decreasing your sense of fatigue so you essentially “feel less tired” as a workout progresses. Common endurance boosters include highly branched cyclic dextrins (which are actually a carbohydrate source rather than a specific supplement) and beta-alanine.

Benefits of Pre-Workout

When it’s time for a pre-workout to deliver results, many formulas knock the ball out of the park. Pre-workouts are popular largely because they are effective. Here are some of the most noticeable benefits.

Increased Energy and Alertness

Whether by stimulants, improved blood flow, or other mechanisms, pre-workouts typically get you “fired up” headed into a training session. This can be useful if you train after a tiring day at work, if you’re dragging in a slow gear before your first repetition, or if you head into a workout when your mental focus is less than 100%.

Increased Power and Strength

Pre-workouts can have a direct impact on your strength output during a given workout. (1) By helping to recruit more muscle units, exciting your central nervous system, or improving your muscles’ ability to contract, pre-workouts may help to move more weight for more reps. Over time, this can contribute to greater strength gains and muscle mass.

Improved Blood Flow

Many pre-workout formulas increase total-body circulation. This improved blood flow may help with general alertness and energy, greater motivation to train, increased physical endurance, and an improved muscle pump. The pump, in particular, has been associated with a greater muscle-building stimulus. (2)

Enhanced Endurance

The ability to perform longer workouts without decreasing output has been a time-tested recipe for improved fitness, strength, and performance.

Many pre-workouts help to improve endurance during a training session, either by decreasing your body’s sense of fatigue or by encouraging a sustained power output. This can be achieved either with improved recovery between sets or with better fueled performance at a higher intensity.

10 Potential Side Effects

For all of its potential benefits, a pre-workout also has the potential to deliver some side effects. No lifter should reasonably expect all gain for no proverbial “pain” in the gym, whether it’s a challenging set or a useful supplement. Here are the most common, though certainly not guaranteed, potential issues from using a pre-workout.

CNS Burnout

Your central nervous system (CNS) is essentially the way your brain communicates with, and activates, your muscles during exercise. Your CNS can become more stressed when training intensity or volume is increased, which can negatively affect overall recovery and performance. (3)

Because pre-workouts allow you train train harder and longer — with greater intensity and potentially more volume — you may be at risk over overstressing your CNS with excessive use.

Impaired Sleep

Perhaps the most “obvious” potential drawback of a stimulant-laden pre-workout is interrupted sleep and potential insomnia. This is primarily an issue with stimulant-heavy pre-workouts (those which include caffeine or other stimulants in their formula), particularly if they are taken in the afternoon or evening.

For example, taking a pre-workout around 5 p.m. for an afterwork training session is much more likely to cause sleep problems than a pre-workout taken at 7 a.m. for an early morning workout. However, individual sensitivities and total daily caffeine intake (from coffee, tea, soda, etc.) can be a factor.

Nausea

Sometimes simple hard training can lead to nausea. Many experienced lifters have needed to visit the “puke bucket” during high-rep squats, but potent pre-workout formulas might turn even an average workout into a sour stomach fiasco.

Whether it’s due to an overload of stimulants, an excessive workload, or just a mix of various ingredients swirling around your gut, a strong pre-workout could leave you feeling queasy, which would ultimately interrupt your training session. Some research suggests this is actually one of the most common side effects some lifters experience after taking a pre-workout. (4)

GI Upset

Similar to nausea, some lifters may experience gastric distress (upset stomach and/or bowel issues) after taking a pre-workout, often due to high-dose stimulants or related ingredients. This can severely interrupt a training session, often derailing a workout before it’s even begun. In extreme cases, it may be severe enough to force a lifter to abandon a workout entirely.

Attenuation

While stimulant-based pre-workouts can be highly effective for improving strength, power, and endurance, they can also deliver gradually diminishing results if used in excess. The body can develop a tolerance to stimulants, including caffeine, making their beneficial effects less impactful over time. (5)

To ensure maximum impact, aim to use a pre-workout no more than every other day, rather than every workout. If you frequently consume significant amounts of caffeine during a regular day, consider cutting back or using a pre-workout even less frequently. This should allow the formula to deliver a more noticeable benefit. (6)

Dehydration

A notable, but relatively easily preventable, side effect of pre-workouts is dehydration. By prompting a more challenging workout, some lifters may become more depleted during a high intensity training session via increased sweating and the loss of basic nutrients. (7)

This may not necessarily be accounted for with sufficient intra-workout hydration. Dehydration can lead to an overall decrease in power and endurance, making the workout counterproductive.

Headache

Another possible side effect of pre-workout, which may be noticeable sooner rather than later during some sessions, is a straightforward headache. Many pre-workout ingredients increase overall blood flow which can be beneficial to muscular performance, but can also be contraindicated in a person who is already experiencing high blood pressure. (8)

If you’re currently dealing with hypertension, double-check your pre-workout formula for ingredients which may exacerbate the issue such as arginine, citrulline, and other purported “nitric oxide boosters.”

Increased Heart Rate

Pre-workouts may increase a lifter’s heart rate, either relatively directly through stimulant-based ingredients or by supporting a high degree of training intensity. In lifters with hypertension or other cardiovascular risks, an increased heart rate may present a potential danger.

While exercise, in itself, may raise a person’s heart rate, the addition of a pre-workout may bring it to inappropriate or unexpected levels.

Skin Reaction

A relatively minor side effect, but no less distracting, is a “tingling” or itching skin sensation after taking a pre-workout. This can be particularly common in formulas which contain beta-alanine — a supplement typically associated with a “flushing” of the skin.

Some research associates the beta-alanine reaction with an overstimulation of nerve endings, rather than a symptom of acute allergic reaction. (9) Regardless, the skin flush may be distractingly uncomfortable, despite being considered a “successful sign” that the supplement may be working.

Medication Interaction

Many nutritional supplements carry the risk of potential interactions with prescription medications. Pre-workout formulas are no different and should be approached with adequate consideration.

Several individual ingredients common to pre-workout mixes are considered “contraindicated” when taking key categories of medications. For example, NO2 boosters such as arginine or citrulline may have an additive effect in people taking certain medications for erectile dysfunction. (10)

Similarly, the amino acid tyrosine (sometimes used in pre-workouts for improved mental focus) may interact with certain prescribed antidepressants and may lead to increased blood pressure and related problems.

Pre-Workout with Care

Pre-workout formulas can be distinctly useful when used strategically. However, like any supplement, there are also potential side effects to be aware of. Mistaking pre-workout formulas as being entirely risk-free would be a short-sighted error. Make sure you know what you’re taking and why you’re taking it. Once you have those details sorted out, you’ll be better prepared to anticipate and mitigate any potential side effects, leading to greater results overall.

References

1. Martinez, N., Campbell, B., Franek, M., Buchanan, L., & Colquhoun, R. (2016). The effect of acute pre-workout supplementation on power and strength performance. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 13, 29. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-016-0138-7
2. Schoenfeld, Brad J. PhD, CSCS, CSPS, NSCA-CPT1; Contreras, Bret MA2. The Muscle Pump: Potential Mechanisms and Applications for Enhancing Hypertrophic Adaptations. Strength and Conditioning Journal 36(3):p 21-25, June 2014. | DOI: 10.1097/SSC.0000000000000021
3. Zając, A., Chalimoniuk, M., Maszczyk, A., Gołaś, A., & Lngfort, J. (2015). Central and Peripheral Fatigue During Resistance Exercise – A Critical Review. Journal of human kinetics, 49, 159–169. https://doi.org/10.1515/hukin-2015-0118
4. Jagim, A. R., Camic, C. L., & Harty, P. S. (2019). Common Habits, Adverse Events, and Opinions Regarding Pre-Workout Supplement Use Among Regular Consumers. Nutrients, 11(4), 855. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11040855
5. Boulenger, J. P., Patel, J., Post, R. M., Parma, A. M., & Marangos, P. J. (1983). Chronic caffeine consumption increases the number of brain adenosine receptors. Life sciences, 32(10), 1135–1142. https://doi.org/10.1016/0024-3205(83)90119-4
6. Addicott, M. A., & Laurienti, P. J. (2009). A comparison of the effects of caffeine following abstinence and normal caffeine use. Psychopharmacology, 207(3), 423–431. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-009-1668-3
7. Judge, L. W., Bellar, D. M., Popp, J. K., Craig, B. W., Schoeff, M. A., Hoover, D. L., Fox, B., Kistler, B. M., & Al-Nawaiseh, A. M. (2021). Hydration to Maximize Performance and Recovery: Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behaviors Among Collegiate Track and Field Throwers. Journal of human kinetics, 79, 111–122. https://doi.org/10.2478/hukin-2021-0065
8. Cameron, M., Camic, C. L., Doberstein, S., Erickson, J. L., & Jagim, A. R. (2018). The acute effects of a multi-ingredient pre-workout supplement on resting energy expenditure and exercise performance in recreationally active females. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 15, 1. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-017-0206-7
9. Liu, Q., Sikand, P., Ma, C., Tang, Z., Han, L., Li, Z., Sun, S., LaMotte, R. H., & Dong, X. (2012). Mechanisms of itch evoked by β-alanine. The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 32(42), 14532–14537. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3509-12.2012
10. El-Wakeel, L. M., Fouad, F. A., Saleem, M. D., & Saber-Khalaf, M. (2020). Efficacy and tolerability of sildenafil/l-arginine combination relative to sildenafil alone in patients with organic erectile dysfunction. Andrology, 8(1), 143–147. https://doi.org/10.1111/andr.12671

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Rather than trying to construct an effective diet plan on your own, you might be ready to enlist the help of a professional, but who?

If you search around the web, you’re likely to find services offered by dietitians, as well as by nutritionists. While the occupations might sound identical, they actually have very different and distinct roles and responsibilities.

Both professionals offer nutrition-based counseling, but they’re distinguished by their educational requirements, their potential to help a variety of clients and goals, even their technical legal standing. Here’s an extensive look at what really lies behind these two confusing titles.

Nutritionist vs. Dietitian

• What Do They Know?
• What Do They Do?
• Which Do You Need?

Education Requirements — What Do They Know?

Beginning with fundamental educational requirements, nutritionists and dietitians differ greatly. What formal education is required to begin a career as a nutritionist? None. One can simply educate themself on general nutrition principles to whatever extent they see fit and then apply the title of “nutritionist.”

The self-determined criteria might include getting a formal education in nutrition or obtaining a certification in nutrition offered by various organizations, such as Precision Nutrition or the ISSA Nutritionist Certification. However, neither a higher education degree nor an accredited certification are technically required before being labeled a nutritionist.

What education is required to become a registered dietitian? Quite a bit. In the US, for example, a four-year undergraduate degree in nutrition and a seven to 12-month unpaid dietetic internship are mandatory.

After which prospective dietitians obtain registration by passing the Registered Dietitian Examination offered by the Commission on Dietetics Registration (CDR) of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (AND). Hence the title “registered dietitian” (RD). 

Many dietitians have gone on to obtain a master’s degree and/or PhD in nutrition or related fields. In fact, starting in January 2024, prospective dietitians will be required to obtain a master’s degree in nutrition to qualify for completing the RD examination. (1)

As a snapshot of what a dietitian needs to study, an undergraduate degree in nutrition includes courses in preparatory math, general chemistry, organic chemistry, biochemistry, and microbiology.

The curriculum also includes courses that make up what is called a Didactic Program in Dietetics (DPD), which includes Introduction into Dietetics and Nutrition, Community Nutrition, Medical Nutrition Therapy (MNT), Advanced Concepts in Nutrition, Food Service Management, Energy and Exercise, Nutrition Communication, Research Methodology, Food and Culture, Contemporary Nutrition, and Advanced Concepts in Nutrition. 

A seven-month-long dietetic internship program consists of 1,200 to 1,500 hours of training supervised by preceptors (experienced RDs). This training involves working in rotations for clinical nutrition in a skilled nursing facility and hospital; community nutrition in a non-profit or government agency or health-maintenance organization, such as Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) or Meals on Wheels; and food service management in a school and skilled nursing facility or hospital. 

Aside from nutritionists and dietitians, there is also an occupational designation of nutrition professionals called Certified Dietitian-Nutritionists (CDN). To be a CDN, one has to complete an undergraduate degree in nutrition, complete 10 years of experience in nutritional practice (usually under the supervision of a registered dietitian), and show proof of education and experience to the Office of Professions of the Department of Education. 

Services Provided — What Do They Do?

Both dietitians and nutritionists can provide nutrition education and counseling to people looking for weight control, body composition and physical performance goals, or general well-being.

However, nutritionists are generally not legally allowed to provide advice for those medical conditions. So it would be beyond the scope of practice for a nutritionist to consult with a person with diabetes, for example.

Dietitians can provide those types of services for a variety of medical conditions such as bariatrics, kidney disease, hyperlipidemia (high cholesterol), cardiovascular diseases, or diabetes.

Dietitians can also work with people in various stages of life including pediatrics, pregnancy, and advanced age. Additionally, dietitians can write prescriptions for enteral (tube-feeding) and parenteral (intravenous) nutrition in skilled nursing facilities and hospitals. 

Both dietitians and nutritionists may work for athletic teams, in private practice, or in fitness and weight loss centers. However, because of their education, training, legal status, and ability to care for health conditions, dietitians can also be found working in hospitals, skilled-nursing facilities, academia, public health programs, health maintenance organizations, and government agencies. 

Know Your Goal — Which Do You Need?

When the time comes that you’re ready to let a professional develop a goal-focused nutrition plan, whether it’s for building muscle or shedding fat, you might decide to invest in working with either a nutritionist or a dietitian.

If you are someone with no current medical conditions that are managed by nutrition (high cholesterol, diabetes, kidney disease, etc.) and your goals are to improve your  overall well-being or just to increase your own general education on nutrition, you can choose either a dietitian or nutritionist.

For more tangible goals such as weight loss, muscle gain, contest prep for physique competitions like bodybuilding, or optimal physical performance — whether it’s for a traditional sport like baseball or a strength sport like powerlifting — you could also be well-served by either a dietitian or nutritionist.

However, if you need the nutrition-based management of medical conditions, you should look for counseling from a dietitian. Their training requires more in-depth education and experience working with significant medical issues, which allows more appropriate and more accurate recommendations.

How to Make the Right Choice

Whether you seek the services of an individual nutritionist or dietitian, be sure to review their education and general credentials. It’s also important to check their history working in the specific area of nutrition you’ll be utilizing them for.

If you are a powerlifter, athlete, or bodybuilder and you’re aiming to meet strength, performance, or body composition goals, check to see if the nutrition professional you are considering has experience counseling others with the same goals. The nutritionist or dietitian might even have personal experience reaching those goals.

Similarly, if you are seeking nutrition counseling for a medical condition, look into the background and success rate of a prospective dietitian. With the advent of social media and personal/professional websites, many nutrition professionals may have photo collections showcasing the results and testimonials from their clients. 

Diet isn’t a “Four-Letter Word”

Now you’re ready to make a proper decision as to which of the seemingly interchangeable occupational designations can help you best plan your diet. You also now have a better idea of who will be taking care of your, or your loved ones’, nutritional needs when it comes to healthcare institutions. The right (or wrong) nutrition professional could end up being the difference between success and failure or fitness and sickness.

References

1. Sanchez, M. and Pucciarelli, D.L. (2019) Master’s Degree, a New Requirement to Become an RDN by 2024: A Comparison of Nutrition Graduate Programs Offered in the USA. Food and Nutrition Sciences, 10, 1-14. https://doi.org/10.4236/fns.2019.101001

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Whether it’s a mustachioed plumber who touches a star and turns invincible while a catchy jingle plays or a race car driving over a nitrous canister for high-speed support, power-ups work. The only downside is that the advantage is fleeting and sometimes disappears just as you finally learn how to harness it.

In the gym, one of the most common real-world “power-ups” comes in the form of pre-workout supplements. By providing your body with specialized ingredients, you can get the upper hand on daily fatigue and potentially complete more reps with more weight, leading to a higher intensity training session and, ultimately, greater results.

However, just like in the games, timing is everything. For maximum benefit, you want to time your pre-workout to deliver the biggest boost right when you need it. Nobody wants to be flying through their warm-up and then sputtering into their hardest sets. Here’s everything you need to know to capitalize on your pre-workout boost before it’s game over.

How Long Does Pre-Workout Last?

• Pre-Workout Timing and Dose
• Benefits of Pre-Workout
• Side Effects of Pre-Workout

Pre-Workout Timing and Dose

Half-life isn’t just another convenient gaming metaphor, it’s also the term that relates to the duration of a supplement’s effects on your body. The longer an ingredient’s half-life, the longer it essentially stays in your system delivering its effects.

However, those effects gradually decrease as your body processes and digests the supplement, leaving a diminished amount of it circulating through your body. When you take an effective dose of a particular supplement (or a formulated supplement blend like a pre-workout), you’ll likely notice certain results almost immediately, before they peak and eventually taper off as the ingredients reach their half-lives. 

Generally speaking, you want to take your pre-workout, a short time before you begin your training session. Depending on how thorough your warm-up is, consider taking your pre-workout 20 to 60 minutes before arriving at the gym. That should generally allow enough time for the nutrients to circulate through your system and deliver their supercharge by the time you’re knee-deep into heavy squats.

Here’s a more specific look at the optimal timing and dosage for some of the most common pre-workout ingredients.

Caffeine

Caffeine is the Tetris of pre-workouts — even people who don’t play video games are aware of its influence, while they might not really be clear on the details. As a supplement, caffeine has been shown to improve anaerobic power output and aerobic endurance, decrease feelings of fatigue, support mental focus, and improve overall energy and performance. (1)(2)

An effective dose of caffeine is roughly two to three milligrams per kilogram of body weight, or around 165 to 245 milligrams for a 180-pound (82-kilogram) person. (1) Caffeine hits peak concentration in most peoples’ systems within 45 minutes, but could be as long as two hours depending on their overall constitution. The typical half-life of caffeine is three to seven hours, depending on factors such as general activity level, body fat mass, and (interestingly) cigarette or alcohol use. (3)(4)

With a potentially long half-life — meaning caffeine is active in your system for a relatively long time — lifters who train in the late afternoon or evening would be better off choosing a non-stimulant pre-workout to get a workout boost without affecting your sleep and post-workout recovery.

Creatine

While some sports supplements are backed by little, if any, credible research, creatine monohydrate is one of the most thoroughly researched supplements on the market. Decades of in-depth data support the benefits of creatine, ranging from increased muscle growth and strength to improved short-term recovery, even improved brain health and cognitive function. (5)(6)

Creatine dosing and timing is somewhat unique, in that it’s not known for delivering immediate effects. Instead, common recommended practice is to saturate your body’s creatine stores for one to several weeks — either by using a short-term “loading phase” (taking five grams four times per day) for one week or by taking a standard “maintenance dose” (five grams per day) for up to 30 days. (7)

Taking a single dose of creatine has not been shown to be beneficial. (8) A standalone dose of creatine is very likely not harmful. However, if you’re not consistently taking creatine, a lone serving will offer no significant benefit.

Beta-Alanine

Beta-alanine is a popular and relatively common ingredient in pre-workout formulas because it’s been shown to improve short-term endurance, increase strength and power output, and decrease fatigue. (9)(10)

Beta-alanine is similar to creatine, in that consistent use (four to six grams per day in divided doses) has shown to deliver significant results. However, unlike creatine, taking beta-alanine sporadically in lower doses (one and a half to two grams) does appear to be beneficial, so regular intake may be useful but not necessary. (11)

With all that it offers by way of improved performance, beta-alanine does have a relatively short half-life. After roughly one hour, benefits significantly drop. Take this into consideration if your pre-workout contains beta-alanine — waiting too long to hit the hard sets may leave you missing out on its key benefits.

Arginine

Arginine is typically categorized as a “non-essential amino acid,” meaning you can get all the arginine your body needs for health and basic function through diet alone without specific supplementation. However, to use arginine as a strategic sports supplement, taking a dedicated supplement can be much more beneficial.

Doses of one and a half to three grams have been shown to improve athletic performance and decrease levels of fatigue. (12) Arginine’s primary method of action is by working as a nitric oxide (NO) booster. NO is associated with increased blood flow and stronger muscle contractions, making it a popular choice for the weight room as well as the bedroom. (13)

Arginine is relatively fast-acting and can reach peak effectiveness in as little as 20 minutes, with a half-life of up to two hours. (13) The combination of improved performance, relatively quick-hitting impact, and relatively long duration make it a tried and true pre-workout staple.

Citrulline

In some ways, citrulline is to arginine what the Power Glove was to the Wii Fit. Citrulline is a precursor to arginine, meaning citrulline essentially helps your body process arginine while delivering its various effects. On its own, citrulline yields similar, and potentially greater, effects on NO production compared to arginine. (14)(15) This can lead to an even more significant boost to circulation, muscle contractions, and endurance.

Citrulline is shown to be effective when three to six grams are taken per serving, and it yields a half-life of roughly one hour. Interestingly, higher doses of citrulline may slightly increase the effective duration of benefits, although they’re not necessarily associated with greater performance benefits. (16)

Benefits of Pre-Workout

The benefits of a pre-workout formula will largely depend on its specific ingredients. While you can generally expect to feel “more energy” from a pre-workout, the specific blend of components will affect the impact on your workout. By checking the labels and knowing what to look for, you can tailor your supplement plan to your training and goals.

Enhanced Mental Alertness and Energy

Likely the most common reason a lifter would use a pre-workout supplement, these formulations are designed to kickstart your engines when you’re dragging. A straightforward physical and mental energy boost is one of the most common benefits of any pre-workout. While caffeine is one reliable component, it’s not the only way to perk up before a hard workout and many efficacious pre-workouts are designed without caffeine.

Improved Strength and Power

Many pre-workouts may help you slap a few more pounds on the bar, either by eliciting stronger muscle contractions, stimulating your central nervous system, or other mechanisms. Moving more weight during a workout can trigger a greater strength stimulus, leading to a more productive workout.

Similarly, explosive short-term power (whether lifting weights or moving your body while sprinting or jumping) can be improved by many pre-workout ingredients via the same processes.

Increased Endurance

By delaying the onset of fatigue, reducing the sensation of fatigue (so you simply don’t “feel” as tired), or increasing your body’s ability to sustain long-term activity, a pre-workout can give you a boost toward the tail-end of a training session.

Being able to train longer than usual — whether it’s additional sets for more lifting volume or spending a few more minutes in a cardio session — can lead to greater long-term progress.

Faster Recovery Between Sets

Recovering between workouts is relatively easy. You’ve got hours and hours to eat, sleep, and relax. Recovering between sets is a different beast entirely. 60 or 90 seconds never seem to go so fast when you’re outside of the gym.

Many pre-workout ingredients improve your body’s ability to recover in short-term periods, including between sets. For example, creatine and beta-alanine can both increase your body’s ability to produce ATP. ATP is basically “fuel” for your muscle cells, so you’re recharging them more quickly and they’re ready to work in the next set sooner.

Side Effects of Pre-Workout

For all of the potential benefits they can offer, pre-workouts also offer some potential side effects. Here’s what to watch out for when adding a pre-workout to your training regimen. Note that some side effects can be mitigated by monitoring the doses of individual ingredients found in your pre-workout.

Digestive Upset

Unfortunately, certain supplement manufacturers have a “more is always better” approach to pre-workouts. This is particularly noticeable when companies treat milligrams of caffeine like a 21st century arms race.

While triple-digit caffeine levels are common and can definitely be effective, excessive caffeine intake can be a surefire way to sidetrack your workout with an upset stomach. Creatine is another popular ingredient which, depending on your individual response, may potentially lead to GI distress in some people.

Overstimulation

Taking a pre-workout and being fully amped up before you hit a deadlift PR is a great thing. Being fully amped up on the car ride home from the gym while sitting in traffic is definitely not a great thing.

When you choose to use a pre-workout, take steps to make sure you leave it all in the gym. Know your personal tolerance, read labels and check dosages, and time your pre-workout properly. Again, if you’re training later in the day and want to ensure a good night’s rest by avoiding stimulants, look for a pre-workout that’s specifically non-stimulating.

Skin Tingles

One side effect uniquely common to pre-workouts which contain beta-alanine is a “tingle” or itch. It’s typically caused by an overly high dose and is relatively short-lived, often lasting less than an hour. It’s considered to be caused by a type of sensory overload, rather than an actual allergic, histamine-based reaction. (17)

Interestingly, not all people consider this a “side effect” and some eagerly anticipate the sensation. It’s an individual preference, but the key is to remember that an effective dose is typically less than the tingle-producing dose. So if you’re lacking the itch, it doesn’t necessarily mean your supplement’s not working.

Level-up Your Pre-Workout

The overriding purpose for a pre-workout formula is to increase mental alertness and physical energy, improve endurance and/or power output, and enable a high-intensity training session. By paying a little extra attention to when you take your pre-workout, you might be able to conquer the final boss (last set) of your toughest workout.

References

1. Guest, N. S., VanDusseldorp, T. A., Nelson, M. T., Grgic, J., Schoenfeld, B. J., Jenkins, N. D. M., Arent, S. M., Antonio, J., Stout, J. R., Trexler, E. T., Smith-Ryan, A. E., Goldstein, E. R., Kalman, D. S., & Campbell, B. I. (2021). International society of sports nutrition position stand: caffeine and exercise performance. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 18(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-020-00383-4
2. Grgic J, Grgic I, Pickering C, et alWake up and smell the coffee: caffeine supplementation and exercise performance—an umbrella review of 21 published meta-analysesBritish Journal of Sports Medicine 2020;54:681-688.
3. Skinner, T. L., Jenkins, D. G., Leveritt, M. D., McGorm, A., Bolam, K. A., Coombes, J. S., & Taaffe, D. R. (2014). Factors influencing serum caffeine concentrations following caffeine ingestion. Journal of science and medicine in sport, 17(5), 516–520. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2013.07.006
4. Temple, J. L., Bernard, C., Lipshultz, S. E., Czachor, J. D., Westphal, J. A., & Mestre, M. A. (2017). The Safety of Ingested Caffeine: A Comprehensive Review. Frontiers in psychiatry, 8, 80. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2017.00080
5. Chilibeck, P. D., Kaviani, M., Candow, D. G., & Zello, G. A. (2017). Effect of creatine supplementation during resistance training on lean tissue mass and muscular strength in older adults: a meta-analysis. Open access journal of sports medicine, 8, 213–226. https://doi.org/10.2147/OAJSM.S123529
6. Rawson, E.S., Venezia, A.C. Use of creatine in the elderly and evidence for effects on cognitive function in young and old. Amino Acids 40, 1349–1362 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00726-011-0855-9
7. Kreider, R. B., Kalman, D. S., Antonio, J., Ziegenfuss, T. N., Wildman, R., Collins, R., Candow, D. G., Kleiner, S. M., Almada, A. L., & Lopez, H. L. (2017). International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport, and medicine. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 14, 18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-017-0173-z
8. Negro M, Cerullo G, Perna S, Beretta-Piccoli M, Rondanelli M, Liguori G, Cena H, Phillips SM, Cescon C and D’Antona G (2022) Effects of a Single Dose of a Creatine-Based Multi-Ingredient Pre-workout Supplement Compared to Creatine Alone on Performance Fatigability After Resistance Exercise: A Double-Blind Crossover Design Study. Front. Nutr. 9:887523. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2022.887523
9. Maté-Muñoz, J.L., Lougedo, J.H., Garnacho-Castaño, M.V. et al. Effects of β-alanine supplementation during a 5-week strength training program: a randomized, controlled study. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 15, 19 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-018-0224-0
10. Berti Zanella, P., Donner Alves, F., & Guerini de Souza, C. (2017). Effects of beta-alanine supplementation on performance and muscle fatigue in athletes and non-athletes of different sports: a systematic review. The Journal of sports medicine and physical fitness, 57(9), 1132–1141. https://doi.org/10.23736/S0022-4707.16.06582-8
11. Trexler, E. T., Smith-Ryan, A. E., Stout, J. R., Hoffman, J. R., Wilborn, C. D., Sale, C., Kreider, R. B., Jäger, R., Earnest, C. P., Bannock, L., Campbell, B., Kalman, D., Ziegenfuss, T. N., & Antonio, J. (2015). International society of sports nutrition position stand: Beta-Alanine. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 12, 30. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-015-0090-y
12. Viribay, A., Burgos, J., Fernández-Landa, J., Seco-Calvo, J., & Mielgo-Ayuso, J. (2020). Effects of Arginine Supplementation on Athletic Performance Based on Energy Metabolism: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutrients, 12(5), 1300. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12051300
13. Koolwal A, Manohar J. S, Rao TSS, Koolwal GD. l-arginine and Erectile Dysfunction. Journal of Psychosexual Health. 2019;1(1):37-43. doi:10.1177/2631831818822018
14. Agarwal, U., Didelija, I. C., Yuan, Y., Wang, X., & Marini, J. C. (2017). Supplemental Citrulline Is More Efficient Than Arginine in Increasing Systemic Arginine Availability in Mice. The Journal of nutrition, 147(4), 596–602. https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.116.240382
15. Gonzalez, A. M., & Trexler, E. T. (2020). Effects of Citrulline Supplementation on Exercise Performance in Humans: A Review of the Current Literature. Journal of strength and conditioning research, 34(5), 1480–1495. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000003426
16. Moinard, C., Nicolis, I., Neveux, N., Darquy, S., Bénazeth, S., & Cynober, L. (2008). Dose-ranging effects of citrulline administration on plasma amino acids and hormonal patterns in healthy subjects: the Citrudose pharmacokinetic study. The British journal of nutrition, 99(4), 855–862. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114507841110
17. Liu, Q., Sikand, P., Ma, C., Tang, Z., Han, L., Li, Z., Sun, S., LaMotte, R. H., & Dong, X. (2012). Mechanisms of itch evoked by β-alanine. The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 32(42), 14532–14537. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3509-12.2012

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This information typically includes macronutrients like protein, carbohydrates, and fats; micronutrients like vitamins and minerals; and total calories. While the intention might’ve been good, it ended up potentially raising more questions than answers. One of the biggest questions being, why 2,000 calories?

The bad news is that the number was pulled from a survey of Americans more than 30 years ago and has managed to remain the default reference point. The good news is that, just a few years ago, labels in the US changed the phrasing to clarify, “2,000 calories a day is used for general nutrition advice.” It’s a better step, but it still doesn’t address the 2,000-dollar question.

Here’s a more useful guide to figuring out an individualized, effective calorie intake whether you’re a college rugby player looking to build some muscular armor, a hopeful vacationer who wants to hit the beach with six-pack abs, or a mother of three aiming to increase her deadlift. 

How Many Calories

• Nutrients vs. Calories
• For More Muscle
• For Fat Loss
• For Strength Gains

Nutrients vs. Calories

Every food can be a combination of three basic macronutrients — protein (which contains amino acids), carbohydrates (which covers complex carbs, fiber, and sugar), and fats (saturated and unsaturated). These nutrients are the composite building blocks of a food’s caloric payload.

On a per-gram basis, one gram of protein delivers four calories, one gram of carbohydrates also delivers four calories whether it’s complex, fiber, or sugar, and one gram of fat brings in a dense nine calories.

In terms of their effects on the body, protein is the only nutrient responsible for repairing and creating new muscle tissue. Carbohydrates and fats are, generally speaking, considered “energy providers” and can be burned by your body to fuel activity whether it’s walking, sprinting, lifting weights, or playing tennis.

While total daily/weekly calorie intake will determine any loss or gain in general body weight, the ratio of macronutrients will more specifically determine the change in lean muscle tissue and body fat.

In broad terms, nutrition plans that are relatively lower in protein will compromise muscle development, strength gains, and overall energy levels. (1) Meanwhile, eating plans that are relatively lower in carbohydrates and/or fats may or may not affect energy levels significantly, as long as you’re eating enough of the “other” energy source — low-carb diets can provide energy via a relatively high fat intake, while low-fat plans meet energy needs with ample carbs.

By manipulating these three macronutrients, you can not only adjust your overall calorie intake but, with strategic planning, you can maintain a given calorie level while fine-tuning the macronutrients to achieve particular goals.

For example, a 2,500-calorie diet which provides 250 grams of protein, 190 grams of carbohydrates, and 80 grams of fat will yield drastically different physique and performance results compared to the same person following a 2,500-calorie diet consisting of 50 grams of protein, 375 grams of carbs, and 90 grams of fat.

Adjusting your macros is an overlooked “diet hack” that can be used as an alternative to simply increasing or decreasing total calories. Matching both your calorie intake and your macronutrient profile to your specific goals will be the most effective approach.

Muscle-Building Calorie Goals

When it’s time to build muscle, many people focus on designing the most effective workout plan, but that’s only half the story. The right training stimulus will politely ask your body to build more muscle, but nutrition is what determines whether or not your body actually grants the request. Here’s how to literally and figuratively tip the scales in your favor. 

Nutrient Targets

Your number one priority for adding muscle is getting enough of the only nutrient responsible for creating muscle tissue — protein. Aim to get a minimum of .74 grams of protein per pound of body weight (1.62 grams per kilogram). (2)

Because .74 is a seemingly random and mathematically tricky number to work with, rounding up to a long-touted “one gram per pound of body weight” is equally effective. Notably, higher protein intake is not directly associated with increased muscle growth. (2) Fortunately, excess calories from protein are less likely to be stored as body fat, so more protein may not necessarily help, but it certainly won’t hurt. (3)

After your target protein intake is determined, fill the caloric gap with a balance of carbohydrates depending largely on your activity level. Aim for two to three grams of carbohydrates per pound of bodyweight (4.5 to 6.5 grams per kilogram), with relatively high volume and/or high frequency training calling for an appropriately higher carb intake to fuel performance and recovery. (4)

Fat intake can complete the remaining calorie balance. For optimal health, immune system function, and overall recovery, fats should ideally provide at least 25% of the total daily calories. (5) This intake can be nudged higher toward 30 to 35% of daily calories as long as you accommodate by reducing either carbohydrates or protein.

Because fats are much more calorically dense than protein and carbs, a little goes a long way, so make adjustments on a small scale.

Calorie Guidelines

Setting your macronutrients in place will naturally end up providing a caloric total, but you need to ensure it’s still enough calories to support muscle growth. Just be sure to find the line between “enough” and “too much.” When it’s time to eat for size, it’s all too easy to cross into full-blown gorging territory.

When it comes to increasing your calories, there’s a point where more isn’t better because your body can slide right past muscle gains and end up creating only body fat. If you’re currently tracking your calorie intake, you can promote muscle gain by adding 350 to 500 calories per day. (6)

That relatively small increase could be as simple as adding a basic afternoon snack, like a small turkey and cheese sandwich with a piece of fruit or a single serving of a high-quality mass gainer shake, to your current daily diet.

If you’re not currently tracking your calories, give yourself a starting calorie intake equal to your current body weight x 20. So, if you currently weigh 180 pounds, aim for 3,600 calories per day. Of that, you’ll apply the macronutrient targets previously listed: 180 grams of protein, 270 grams of carbs, and 80 grams of fat.

Here’s the tricky part: the macro targets in this example only tally up to 2,520 calories, so you’d actually fall short of your intended calories. Fill in the difference primarily from protein sources to potentially reduce fat gain, but include a combination of carbohydrates and fats to make the plan simpler and more practical to implement.

Be sure to hit the target every day, not just on training days. You’re still recovering and growing on rest days, so don’t reduce your meals just because you’re not working out.

How to Adjust

For maximum results, you need to fine-tune your nutrition plan as you go along depending on the results you see. You can’t simply follow one rigid plan for weeks or months on end without adjustment and expect great results.

It’d be like trying to drive down a highway without ever changing lanes — you’re going to be miserable the entire time and you still probably won’t end up where you want to be. Instead, track your muscle gain results by monitoring your strength in the gym. You should be steadily progressing in performance (more weight and/or more repetitions each week). Having better workouts is a clue that you’re recovering well and feeding your body enough nutrients.

Most notably, monitor your body weight each week and expect gains of roughly two to four pounds per month. Yes, per month. (7) That’s about as much muscle tissue as the body can build in that timeframe. Gaining significant body weight faster is an indicator that you’re likely creating more body fat than lean muscle tissue.

However, variables such as your age and overall training experience can be factors that determine your individual rate of muscle gains. Lifters relatively new to the gym typically gain more muscle, more quickly, while veteran lifters take more time to respond to the muscle-building stimulus with new muscle mass.

If the scale doesn’t increase in two to three weeks, add roughly 250 calories per day and continue monitoring. Repeat as needed, being aware that cooking and chewing are as important as lifting when it comes to adding size.

Calorie Deficit for Fat Loss

The words “fat loss diet” have sent countless shivers down countless spines over the years. Fad diets based on extreme and unsustainable behaviors are largely to blame. These unrealistic, niche plans have become so commonplace that they’re often considered the standard way of reshaping your physique.

Fortunately, you can skip over the fads and rely on time-tested nutrition principles to support your fat loss goals. No gimmicks necessary. While diet plans to build muscle are all generally similar (eat plenty of calories and don’t skimp on the protein), fat loss diet plans can vary in nutrient breakdown without significantly compromising results.

Nutrient Targets

Fat loss diet plans typically come in two primary flavors, no pun intended. Diets can either be relatively low carb or relatively low fat. Both have been shown to be equally effective, so it’s essentially a matter of which can best suit your individual preferences, while also supporting your overall training plan. (8)

In a relatively low carb diet, carbohydrates typically provide no more than 25% of your daily calories. This includes carbs from all sources — complex carbs, sugars, and fiber. Contrary to some carb-focused nutrition influencers, “net carbs” (the carbohydrate number after fiber is subtracted) isn’t really a thing. It’s a term that has more to do with food-product marketing than actually nutrition.

Some low-carb dieters take this approach to an extreme by adopting a ketogenic diet, or extremely low-carb dieting (typically less than 50 grams of carbohydrates per day). While keto diets can spur quick weight loss initially, it’s been shown to not deliver significantly better results than other alternatives, while also being notably difficult to adhere to. (9)

In a relatively low fat diet, fats deliver less than 25% of your total calories each day. Because each gram of fat carries nine calories, reducing fat sources in your diet is a quick and efficient way to reduce your total calories.

However, fats are essential for your body’s natural function and they play a role in everything from supporting a strong immune system to general hormone function. (10) Keeping your fat intake too low for too long can potentially lead to health issues, so be aware of possible issues if following this approach.

In either plan, protein intake should remain a priority. Maintaining high protein levels has been shown to support fat loss, encourage muscle preservation, and improve overall body composition. (11)

Calorie Guidelines

Significant fat loss can’t happen without a caloric deficit. If you’re not burning more calories than you take in, you won’t see any major progress. While some misguided dieters take this advice to the extreme by severely restricting calories, drastically increasing their calorie expenditure through excessive exercise, or doing both, a more moderate approach will yield better overall results.

Follow a well-designed training plan, incorporating both resistance training for muscle preservation and cardiovascular exercise for overall health, improved recovery, and moderately increased calorie expenditure. Pair that training with a nutrition plan that provides slightly restricted calories.

If you’re currently tracking your calories, decrease each day’s intake by 500 to 750 calories. (12) Focus on primarily reducing either your carbohydrate or fat sources, while keeping your protein levels relatively high.

If you’re not currently tracking calories, aim to take in your current body weight x 12 in total calories. For example, if you currently weigh 195 pounds, set your daily calorie goal at roughly 2,300 calories.

One popular, however inefficient, approach is to “eat for the body you want,” or set calorie intake using your “goal weight.” Not only does this technique rely on guesstimating your future self’s body weight, which may or may not end up accurate, but it provides your current self with insufficient calories to fuel training and recovery. Instead, stay in the present and feed the body you’re working with.

Whether you choose to follow a lower carb or lower fat plan can come down to individual preference and overall training style — if you have a high volume of training, lifting five days per week with several additional cardio sessions, you may perform and recover better with a lower fat plan which allows relatively higher carb intake to fuel intense workouts.

How to Adjust

It’s important to differentiate between fat loss (reduced body fat) and weight loss (reduced body weight). Anyone who’s endured an outdoor adventure and ended up drenched in sweat has experienced “weight loss.” It’s transient, almost always from water loss, and it’s regained almost immediately. More drastically, bed-ridden patients under long-term medical care also experience “weight loss” as muscle tissue wastes away.

When most people set a goal of losing weight, they (hopefully) mean to specify fat loss — reducing stored body fat to create a healthier and more aesthetic physique. For that reason, it’s important not to overfocus on just reducing your body weight (making the scale read a progressively lower number) during a fat loss plan.

The scale should, typically, trend down over the course of weeks or months, but body recomposition (the addition of lean muscle while reducing body fat) can make progress on the scale unreliable, at best. 

Consider also relying on more tangible criteria such as your performance in the gym (weight lifted, reps performed, and general energy during training), as well as objective measures like the fit of your clothes or tape measurements of key body parts like your thighs, upper arms, or waist.

Losing two pounds of body weight per week while also improving other metrics would be considered excellent progress. Dropping one pound per week while improving the other benchmarks is also an effective and sustainable rate of progress. Variables that can sometimes lead to faster short-term results would include having a relatively larger starting point or following a very low carb diet plan.

If you’re not seeing weekly results with objective measures (gym performance and clothes/measurements) and scale weight, you can either reduce your calories by 150 to 200 per day or manipulate your macronutrient intake while keeping overall calories the same, such as decreasing carbs while increasing protein or fat.

Even though restricting calories is necessary for fat loss, it’s important to not reduce your intake too low. (13) To avoid “stalling out” and sending your body into panic mode (where fat loss ceases regardless of calorie reduction), avoid reducing calories below your current body weight x 10. To continue safely and effectively performing regular training while supporting general health, consider this limit the “do not cross”-zone. 

Eat for Strength and Recovery

Physique-based goals aren’t the only time you should pay attention to nutrition. For optimal performance and long-term results, even lifters who prioritize their PRs over their arm size or ab development can benefit from targeted nutrition practices. The right diet plan will fuel strength-focused workouts while also delivering much needed nutrients for recovery between sessions. (14)

For the most part, a nutrition plan that supports strength gains and one that supports muscle gains will appear fairly similar because the two goals are closely related. One of the most counterproductive approaches, however, is to “train for strength while eating for fat loss.” Restricting your energy intake while asking your body for high-performance output will only lead to poor progress on both fronts.

Nutrient Targets

Protein is essential for muscle growth as well as repair, so keeping the one-gram-per-pound target in sight is (still) the best approach. Even if you’re not interested in building wide lats or massive quads, you’ll appreciate the muscle-sparing benefits of a high protein intake once you notice reduced post-workout muscle soreness.

Carbohydrate intake can be up to three grams per pound of body weight per day. (15) This will allow optimal performance during high volume and/or high frequency training. While it’s technically possible to train with high intensity on a relatively lower carb intake, it’s fitting a square peg in a round nutritional hole.

The body’s innate physiological preference is to fuel intense activity, like hard training, with carbs. Investing time and energy into “retraining” your body to burn dietary fats for energy will compromise short-term progress for minimal, if any, long-term benefit.

Aim for 30% of your daily calories from fats. This range should support overall health, hormonal function, metabolism, immune system benefit, and general recovery. (16) A relatively higher percentage of dietary fats will also help to avoid a calorie deficit, which would significantly impact training results.

Calorie Guidelines

When your goal isn’t to specifically add muscle or reduce body fat, your overall calorie intake doesn’t need to be excessive as long as it provides the target nutrients. Set a daily calorie target of your current body weight x 15. So, if you weigh 210 pounds, aim for roughly 3,100 to 3,200 calories per day with enough protein, carbs, and fats. If you’re 130 pounds, you’re looking at around 1,900 calories each day.

As with the muscle-building nutrition plan, keep your daily calories the same whether it’s a training day or a rest day. This will allow you to recover from your most recent workout while also preparing to fuel your upcoming training session.

Some lifters may instinctively eat less on days they don’t train, either due to a reduced appetite or the thought that they’re not “putting the calories to use.” However, the body is still repairing and recovering from previous training, so restricting calories is inefficient.

What you could do, however, to adjust your diet plan without compromising results is to steal a page from the fat loss playbook and manipulate your macronutrients on rest days. Consider decreasing carb intake while increasing protein and fats, to maintain the same total calorie intake. This can support recovery while potentially minimizing fat gain, if you’re into that sort of thing.

How to Adjust

When your goal is to hit PRs, performance in the gym is the number one priority. Your nutrition plan should allow you to step into the gym feeling ready to attack each session with full energy and minimal residual soreness from the previous workout.

Weights and repetitions should move steadily upward in each workout throughout the week. While strength plateaus are a natural occurrence in any training plan, they should be relatively few and far between when a well-designed training routine is supported by strategic nutrition.

Your body weight may hold steady or increase slightly over time, roughly one pound per week, which is an indicator that your calorie intake is sufficient. If you’re losing body weight consistently, increase your daily plan by 250 calories.

Some lifters consider changing their nutrition around the most challenging session of their training week (typically a brutal leg day) by going above and beyond their calorie target prior to the workout. The usual thinking is that they can supercompensate or “overfuel” themselves into having an incredibly productive workout.

However, if your consistent nutrition provides ample macronutrients and calories, there’s little physical benefit to having an epic gorge the day before (or morning of) an extra-intense workout.

You might find some psychological benefit from believing those extra pancakes will add reps to your squat, but unless you’ve been inadvertently restricting your nutrition or not hitting your daily target, it’s not going to help.

Kitchen Beats Gym

You hopefully wouldn’t show up at work every day, put in your eight or nine hours, and then forget to cash your paycheck at the end of the week. If you did, then all that hard work was for nothing and you never actually reap the benefits. That’s exactly what so many lifters do when they overemphasize their training program while giving bare-minimum attention to their nutrition. Instead, set yourself up for success by following the kind of eating plan that lets you cash in on all that in-gym effort.

References

1. Nunes, E. A., Colenso-Semple, L., McKellar, S. R., Yau, T., Ali, M. U., Fitzpatrick-Lewis, D., Sherifali, D., Gaudichon, C., Tomé, D., Atherton, P. J., Robles, M. C., Naranjo-Modad, S., Braun, M., Landi, F., and Phillips, S. M. (2022) Systematic review and meta-analysis of protein intake to support muscle mass and function in healthy adults, Journal of Cachexia, Sarcopenia and Muscle, 13, 795–810, https://doi.org/10.1002/jcsm.12922
2. Morton, R. W., Murphy, K. T., McKellar, S. R., Schoenfeld, B. J., Henselmans, M., Helms, E., Aragon, A. A., Devries, M. C., Banfield, L., Krieger, J. W., & Phillips, S. M. (2018). A systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression of the effect of protein supplementation on resistance training-induced gains in muscle mass and strength in healthy adults. British journal of sports medicine, 52(6), 376–384. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2017-097608
3. Leaf, A., & Antonio, J. (2017). The Effects of Overfeeding on Body Composition: The Role of Macronutrient Composition – A Narrative Review. International journal of exercise science, 10(8), 1275–1296.
4. Richard B Kreider, Colin D Wilborn, Lem Taylor, Bill Campbell, Anthony L Almada, Rick Collins, Mathew Cooke, Conrad P Earnest, Mike Greenwood, Douglas S Kalman, Chad M Kerksick, Susan M Kleiner, Brian Leutholtz, Hector Lopez, Lonnie M Lowery, Ron Mendel, Abbie Smith, Marie Spano, Robert Wildman, Darryn S Willoughby, Tim N Ziegenfuss & Jose Antonio (2010) ISSN exercise & sport nutrition review: research & recommendations, Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 7:1, DOI: 10.1186/1550-2783-7-7
5. Economos, C.D., Bortz, S.S. & Nelson, M.E. Nutritional Practices of Elite Athletes. Sports Medicine 16, 381–399 (1993). https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-199316060-00004
6. Slater, G. J., Dieter, B. P., Marsh, D. J., Helms, E. R., Shaw, G., & Iraki, J. (2019). Is an Energy Surplus Required to Maximize Skeletal Muscle Hypertrophy Associated With Resistance Training. Frontiers in nutrition, 6, 131. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2019.00131
7. Morton, R. W., Murphy, K. T., McKellar, S. R., Schoenfeld, B. J., Henselmans, M., Helms, E., Aragon, A. A., Devries, M. C., Banfield, L., Krieger, J. W., & Phillips, S. M. (2018). A systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression of the effect of protein supplementation on resistance training-induced gains in muscle mass and strength in healthy adults. British journal of sports medicine, 52(6), 376–384. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2017-097608
8. Gardner, C. D., Trepanowski, J. F., Del Gobbo, L. C., Hauser, M. E., Rigdon, J., Ioannidis, J. P. A., Desai, M., & King, A. C. (2018). Effect of Low-Fat vs Low-Carbohydrate Diet on 12-Month Weight Loss in Overweight Adults and the Association With Genotype Pattern or Insulin Secretion: The DIETFITS Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA, 319(7), 667–679. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2018.0245
9. Kirkpatrick, C. F., Bolick, J. P., Kris-Etherton, P. M., Sikand, G., Aspry, K. E., Soffer, D. E., Willard, K. E., & Maki, K. C. (2019). Review of current evidence and clinical recommendations on the effects of low-carbohydrate and very-low-carbohydrate (including ketogenic) diets for the management of body weight and other cardiometabolic risk factors: A scientific statement from the National Lipid Association Nutrition and Lifestyle Task Force. Journal of clinical lipidology, 13(5), 689–711.e1. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacl.2019.08.003
10. Venkatraman JT, Leddy J, Pendergast D. Dietary fats and immune status in athletes: clinical implications. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 2000 Jul;32(7 Suppl):S389-95. DOI: 10.1097/00005768-200007001-00003. PMID: 10910295.
11. Moon, J., & Koh, G. (2020). Clinical Evidence and Mechanisms of High-Protein Diet-Induced Weight Loss. Journal of obesity & metabolic syndrome, 29(3), 166–173. https://doi.org/10.7570/jomes20028
12. Kim J. Y. (2021). Optimal Diet Strategies for Weight Loss and Weight Loss Maintenance. Journal of obesity & metabolic syndrome, 30(1), 20–31. https://doi.org/10.7570/jomes20065
13. Rosenbaum, M., & Leibel, R. L. (2010). Adaptive thermogenesis in humans. International journal of obesity (2005), 34 Suppl 1(0 1), S47–S55. https://doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2010.184
14. Gary Slater & Stuart M. Phillips (2011) Nutrition guidelines for strength sports: Sprinting, weightlifting, throwing events, and bodybuilding, Journal of Sports Sciences, 29:sup1, S67-S77, DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2011.574722
15. Kanter M. (2018). High-Quality Carbohydrates and Physical Performance: Expert Panel Report. Nutrition today, 53(1), 35–39. https://doi.org/10.1097/NT.0000000000000238
16. Lowery L. M. (2004). Dietary fat and sports nutrition: a primer. Journal of sports science & medicine, 3(3), 106–117.

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Creatine is so popular among gym-goers because it’s one of the few supplements with seemingly endless science behind it. It’s arguably the most proven and data-supported supplement out there, especially when it comes to supporting strength and hypertrophy gains. So it can help you lift heavier and pack on muscle. Who could ask for more? Here’s a closer look at how to use creatine to maximize those tantalizing results.

Creatine Monohydrate

• Creatine Benefits
• How to Take Creatine
• Potential Side Effects

What is Creatine and How Does It Help?

In recent decades, creatine has gained considerable popularity as a dietary supplement among athletes and fitness enthusiasts. (1)(2)(3)

Creatine is a naturally occurring compound found in the body, and it’s also found, in relatively small amounts, in everyday foods like beef, chicken, and eggs. The benefits of creatine supplementation have been extensively studied over the years. Caution: There’s some scientific discussion ahead, but it’ll all make sense by the end.

Creatine is synthesized from the amino acids glycine and arginine in the liver, pancreas, and kidneys. Once synthesized or consumed, creatine is primarily stored in your muscles as phosphocreatine (PCr).

One of the fundamental ways creatine functions in your body is by aiding in the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) — the primary source of energy for cellular processes. During high-intensity exercise, such as weight lifting or sprinting, the demand for ATP increases. However, ATP stores are limited and they deplete rapidly. This is why intense exercise can only be sustained for so long.

That’s where creatine comes into play. It “donates” its high-energy phosphate group to adenosine diphosphate (ADP), converting it back into ATP through a process called phosphorylation. This replenishes the ATP stores, allowing muscles to continue contracting forcefully and perform at a higher intensity for longer periods. (4)(5)(6)(7)(8) In a nutshell, this powerhouse supplement gives you the edge needed to push harder in the gym.

Muscle Growth and Volume

Creatine also plays a vital role in promoting muscle growth and increasing muscle volume. When creatine is ingested, it leads to an increase in creatine stores within your muscles. This increased creatine availability enhances cellular hydration by drawing water into the muscle cells. Consequently, muscles appear fuller and larger, contributing to a more pronounced muscular appearance. (9)(10)(11)(12)(13)

This is why you’ll likely see the scale go up a little bit within your first few weeks of taking creatine. You are “retaining water,” but in a good way. The water is enlarging your muscle cells, not your love handles like after a salty Chinese buffet.

Furthermore, creatine supplementation has been shown to stimulate protein synthesis — the process by which new muscle tissue is built. It also reduces muscle protein breakdown, aiding in the preservation of existing muscle mass. This dual action of promoting muscle protein synthesis and inhibiting protein breakdown creates an anabolic environment that supports muscle growth and development.

Improved Exercise Performance

Creatine has consistently demonstrated its ability to enhance exercise performance across a wide range of activities. By increasing the availability of ATP, creatine supplementation allows for improved strength, power, and endurance during high-intensity, short-duration activities.

Athletes engaged in activities such as lifting weights, running, and jumping may benefit from creatine supplementation due to its potential to increase performance in explosive movements.

Additionally, creatine has shown positive effects on repeated bouts of high-intensity exercise with short recovery periods, like interval workouts or circuit training. Creatine helps to replenish ATP stores more rapidly, reducing fatigue and enabling athletes to maintain their performance during successive bouts of intense exercise.

Neuroprotective Effects

Beyond its benefits for physical performance, this “meathead” supplement is also good for your brain. Creatine is actively transported into the brain, where it acts as an energy buffer, providing neurons with a readily available source of ATP. (14) This energy support may help protect brain cells against damage and improve overall brain function. (15)(16)

Furthermore, studies have indicated that creatine supplementation might have potential therapeutic applications for neurodegenerative conditions such as Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, and Huntington’s disease. (17) While more research is needed in this area, the neuroprotective properties of creatine are promising and warrant further exploration.

Some research has also indicated that low creatine levels may correlate with higher rates of depression and anxiety, especially in vegetarian/vegan populations which are typically lacking in creatine from food sources. (18)

How to Take Creatine

When it comes to selecting a creatine supplement, there are several options available. The most common and well-researched form is creatine monohydrate. It’s the most cost-efficient, highly effective, widely used, and most thoroughly researched form of creatine.

In fact, creatine monohydrate has the ability to fully saturate your muscles. More expensive forms of creatine — creatine hcl, creatine ethyl ester, etc. — can range from being “as good as monohydrate” to simply worse, despite promising to saturate your muscles more than monohydrate. This claim is just not possible. Creatine monohydrate already fully saturates your muscles efficiently. There’s not a “more efficient” form available.

While creatine monohydrate is still a relatively inexpensive supplement, its price has increased in recent years due to popularity. Your best bet is to buy it in bulk when possible and avoid proprietary blends — pure micronized creatine monohydrate is all you need. That’s the form that is most commonly studied in research.

Loading Phase vs. Maintenance Phase

To quickly saturate your muscles with creatine, a “loading phase” is often recommended. During this five to seven-day period, take 20 grams of creatine monohydrate per day, divided into four equal doses of five grams each. This loading phase allows your muscles to reach maximum creatine levels and deliver optimal results more rapidly.

After the loading phase, switch to a maintenance dosage of three to five grams per day. It’s essential to note that creatine has been shown to be safe for long-term use, so there is no need to “cycle” on and off by stopping use of the supplement for several weeks (or months) at a time. (19)

Keep in mind that you can simply start with a maintenance phase to get your muscles fully saturated within three to four weeks and still end up with the same net benefits. This option is better for those who might potentially experience GI distress from the relatively high daily dosing involved with creatine loading.

Hydration and Timing

Creatine works best when the body is adequately hydrated. Therefore, it’s crucial to drink plenty of water throughout the day, every day, when supplementing with creatine. Aim to consume at least 8-10 glasses of water daily — at least 64 ounces per day — and always take it with water. No “dry scooping” like your favorite fitfluencer slamming a pre-workout.

Timing is also an important consideration. While creatine can be taken at any time during the day, consuming it post-workout may provide additional benefits. Most research finds this to be the optimal time because your muscles are highly sensitive to insulin, allowing them to absorb more nutrients and water. This is why it’s ideal to take creatine with your post workout meal. (20)

If you prefer to take it at another point in the day for convenience, that is fine too. Consistency to keep your muscles fully saturated is most important, which leads to the next point: If you exercise regularly, be sure to take creatine daily even on your rest days. There are still non-exercise related benefits to taking creatine, including brain health and cognitive function as explained earlier.

Potential Side Effects

As with any supplement, it’s essential to monitor your progress and be aware of any potential side effects. The most common side effect of creatine supplementation may include mild gastrointestinal distress. However, this side effect is typically minimal and temporary. Reducing the daily dose often resolves the issue.

If you do notice GI distress: don’t do a loading phase, be sure you’re taking micronized creatine (which dissolves more thoroughly and may digest easier), and take creatine with a meal. Overall though, GI distress is relatively rare.

Some people claim water retention as another side effect, but this is actually a good thing. It shows that creatine is working and being absorbed into your muscle stores. The scale going up when initially taking creatine is affirming, especially if you’re already carrying a degree of muscle mass.

The more muscled you are, the more water your body should absorb. If you are not gaining any weight after beginning creatine use, it’s likely not as detectable or you simply don’t yet have significant muscle mass to benefit from the muscle-related benefits.

Lastly, hair loss is another commonly touted side effect, but this is more fear-mongering than reality. In the decades of creatine research, there has only been one study on this — rugby players taking creatine experienced higher levels of DHT, an androgen that potentially increases hair loss. (21)

However, it’s understandable that this androgen is higher to explain the benefits of creatine. Intense exercise, itself, can increase DHT levels. Not to mention, the high-level rugby players in the study could have potentially been taking additional supplements, or performance enhancing substances, which could provide a more significant underlying cause.

There has never been research showing creatine directly impacting hair loss. Anecdotally, I’ve never encountered this either even after working with hundreds of male clients taking creatine.

Research generally finds creatine has a great safety profile. (22) If you have any underlying medical conditions, it’s crucial to consult with your healthcare provider before starting creatine supplementation (or any supplementation, for that matter). They can provide personalized advice based on your potential individual circumstances.

That being said, creatine supplementation will raise creatinine levels in your bloodwork, which might worry your doctor a bit if they don’t lift and aren’t aware that elevated creatinine levels are not, on their own, an indicator worth ringing any alarm bells. (22) All your other metrics should be relatively unchanged though.

Creatine – Simply the Best for Body and Mind

Creatine is a remarkable compound with myriad benefits. By enhancing ATP production, promoting muscle growth, and improving exercise performance, creatine has become one of the most widely-used supplement in the sports and fitness communities. Its potential neuroprotective properties further contribute to its growing significance in scientific research. However, it is crucial to approach creatine supplementation responsibly, adhering to recommended dosages and seeking professional guidance when necessary. But outside of rare exceptions, most people can and should plan on taking it until they join the big gym in the sky, so put a permanent spot for creatine monohydrate in your budget.

References

1. Baker, J. S., McCormick, M. C., & Robergs, R. A. (2010). Interaction among Skeletal Muscle Metabolic Energy Systems during Intense Exercise. Journal of nutrition and metabolism, 2010, 905612. https://doi.org/10.1155/2010/905612
2. Cholewa, J., Trexler, E., Lima-Soares, F., de Araújo Pessôa, K., Sousa-Silva, R., Santos, A. M., Zhi, X., Nicastro, H., Cabido, C. E. T., de Freitas, M. C., Rossi, F., & Zanchi, N. E. (2019). Effects of dietary sports supplements on metabolite accumulation, vasodilation and cellular swelling in relation to muscle hypertrophy: A focus on “secondary” physiological determinants. Nutrition (Burbank, Los Angeles County, Calif.), 60, 241–251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2018.10.011
3. Kaviani M, Shaw K, Chilibeck PD. Benefits of Creatine Supplementation for Vegetarians Compared to Omnivorous Athletes: A Systematic Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2020; 17(9):3041. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17093041
4. Branch J. D. (2003). Effect of creatine supplementation on body composition and performance: a meta-analysis. International journal of sport nutrition and exercise metabolism, 13(2), 198–226. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.13.2.198
5. Chilibeck, P. D., Kaviani, M., Candow, D. G., & Zello, G. A. (2017). Effect of creatine supplementation during resistance training on lean tissue mass and muscular strength in older adults: a meta-analysis. Open access journal of sports medicine, 8, 213–226. https://doi.org/10.2147/OAJSM.S123529
6. Engelhardt, M., Neumann, G., Berbalk, A., & Reuter, I. (1998). Creatine supplementation in endurance sports. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 30(7), 1123–1129. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005768-199807000-00016
7. Cooper, R., Naclerio, F., Allgrove, J. et al. Creatine supplementation with specific view to exercise/sports performance: an update. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 9, 33 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1186/1550-2783-9-33
8. Stares, A., & Bains, M. (2020). The Additive Effects of Creatine Supplementation and Exercise Training in an Aging Population: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials. Journal of geriatric physical therapy (2001), 43(2), 99–112. https://doi.org/10.1519/JPT.0000000000000222
9. Chilibeck, P. D., Kaviani, M., Candow, D. G., & Zello, G. A. (2017). Effect of creatine supplementation during resistance training on lean tissue mass and muscular strength in older adults: a meta-analysis. Open access journal of sports medicine, 8, 213–226. https://doi.org/10.2147/OAJSM.S123529
10. Farshidfar, F., Pinder, M. A., & Myrie, S. B. (2017). Creatine Supplementation and Skeletal Muscle Metabolism for Building Muscle Mass- Review of the Potential Mechanisms of Action. Current protein & peptide science, 18(12), 1273–1287. https://doi.org/10.2174/1389203718666170606105108
11. Burke, D. G., Candow, D. G., Chilibeck, P. D., MacNeil, L. G., Roy, B. D., Tarnopolsky, M. A., & Ziegenfuss, T. (2008). Effect of creatine supplementation and resistance-exercise training on muscle insulin-like growth factor in young adults. International journal of sport nutrition and exercise metabolism, 18(4), 389–398. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.18.4.389
12. Willoughby, D. S., & Rosene, J. M. (2003). Effects of oral creatine and resistance training on myogenic regulatory factor expression. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 35(6), 923–929. https://doi.org/10.1249/01.MSS.0000069746.05241.F0
13. Saremi, A., Gharakhanloo, R., Sharghi, S., Gharaati, M. R., Larijani, B., & Omidfar, K. (2010). Effects of oral creatine and resistance training on serum myostatin and GASP-1. Molecular and cellular endocrinology, 317(1-2), 25–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mce.2009.12.019
14. Avgerinos, K. I., Spyrou, N., Bougioukas, K. I., & Kapogiannis, D. (2018). Effects of creatine supplementation on cognitive function of healthy individuals: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Experimental gerontology, 108, 166–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exger.2018.04.013
15. Dolan, E., Gualano, B., & Rawson, E. S. (2019). Beyond muscle: the effects of creatine supplementation on brain creatine, cognitive processing, and traumatic brain injury. European journal of sport science, 19(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2018.1500644
16. RAWSON, ERIC S.1; VOLEK, JEFF S.2. Effects of Creatine Supplementation and Resistance Training on Muscle Strength and Weightlifting Performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 17(4):p 822-831, November 2003.
17. Bakian, A.V., Huber, R.S., Scholl, L. et al. Dietary creatine intake and depression risk among U.S. adults. Transl Psychiatry 10, 52 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-020-0741-x
18. Bender, A., Klopstock, T. Creatine for neuroprotection in neurodegenerative disease: end of story?. Amino Acids 48, 1929–1940 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00726-015-2165-0
19. Kreider, R. B., Melton, C., Rasmussen, C. J., Greenwood, M., Lancaster, S., Cantler, E. C., Milnor, P., & Almada, A. L. (2003). Long-term creatine supplementation does not significantly affect clinical markers of health in athletes. Molecular and cellular biochemistry, 244(1-2), 95–104.
20. Antonio, J., & Ciccone, V. (2013). The effects of pre versus post workout supplementation of creatine monohydrate on body composition and strength. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 10, 36. https://doi.org/10.1186/1550-2783-10-36
21. van der Merwe, J., Brooks, N. E., & Myburgh, K. H. (2009). Three weeks of creatine monohydrate supplementation affects dihydrotestosterone to testosterone ratio in college-aged rugby players. Clinical journal of sport medicine : official journal of the Canadian Academy of Sport Medicine, 19(5), 399–404. https://doi.org/10.1097/JSM.0b013e3181b8b52f
22. Kim HJ, Kim CK, Carpentier A, Poortmans JR. Studies on the safety of creatine supplementation. Amino Acids. 2011 May;40(5):1409-18. doi: 10.1007/s00726-011-0878-2. Epub 2011 Mar 12. PMID: 21399917.

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Many lifters know that protein is a critical nutrient for building muscle. Some lifters also know that protein is composed of amino acids. But one specific type of aminos — branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs)— could play a particularly significant role in supporting your training program. Here’s a closer look at this often discussed, rarely understood, power-packed trio.

BCAA Benefits

• What Are BCAAs
• 4 BCAA Benefits
• How to Use BCAAs
• Frequently Asked Questions

What Are BCAAs

Amino acids are organic compounds that serve as the building blocks of proteins. We need 20 different amino acids for a properly functioning, well-performing body. Of these amino acids, nine are considered essential because our bodies cannot form them on their own. We must consume them from protein-rich foods such as meat, dairy, and eggs, or from specific nutritional supplementation.

• Phenylalanine
• Valine
• Tryptophan
• Threonine
• Isoleucine
• Methionine
• Histidine
• Leucine
• Lysine

Three of these essential amino acids — leucine, isoleucine, and valine –  are considered “branched-chain amino acids” (BCAAs) because of their unique structure and roles in the body. BCAA supplementation, in particular, may be extremely useful for lifters looking to train harder, recover faster, and push themselves toward better overall results.

4 BCAA Benefits

Because nutrition information spreads quickly and frequently on the Internet, sometimes without regard to factual accuracy, it’s useful to refer to academic literature for the benefits of consuming specific nutrients or supplements.

It’s important to acquire a well-rounded understanding of the available data if you want to make the most well-informed decision before investing your time, money, and health. Here’s a look at some of the research-based benefits of BCAAs.

Reduced Muscle Soreness

BCAAs have been shown to lessen muscle soreness by mitigating muscular damage after exercise. In one study, subjects had reported significantly less muscle soreness and showed less decrease in muscular force two and three days after a squat session. (1) Other research has shown that delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS), range of motion, and indicators of muscle damage were all significantly improved in subjects who consumed BCAAs before or after training, compared with those who ingested a placebo.

Interestingly, stronger benefits were shown in those who consumed them before exercise. (2) With that in mind, it could make sense to choose a pre-workout (if you use one) which includes BCAAs.

Improved Muscle Growth and Maintenance 

Another benefit provided by BCAAs is increased muscle protein synthesis — the process in which muscle is built or maintained. Jackman et al. (2017) had young resistance-trained men complete two trials in which they performed a leg workout consisting of leg extensions and leg presses, ingesting either BCAAs or a placebo immediately after training. (3)

Muscle biopsies taken one and four hours after each session showed that BCAAs ingested after exercising resulted in a significant increase in stimulation of myofibrillar muscle protein synthesis. In other words, having BCAAs after training may lead to more muscle growth.

Increased Endurance 

BCAAs have also been shown to increase endurance. Research showed that subjects who consumed BCAAs before an incremental treadmill workout had “times to exhaustion” significantly lengthier than those who received a placebo. (4)

Runners taking BCAAs were able to stay on the treadmill for longer periods, while running at higher intensities, compared to running without BCAAs. Cumulatively, performing cardio at a higher intensity and longer duration can contribute to improved conditioning, increased endurance, and a stronger training stimulus (for example, more calories burned per training session).

Reduced Mental Fatigue During Exercise

Ingestion of BCAAs have been shown to offer a psychological benefit during exercise, which can possibly aid in exercise compliance or “persistence” in competitive performance. One study had subjects complete a 60-minute stationary bike workout in the morning, after performing an exercise session the previous night in an attempt to lower glycogen stores — making the morning session that much more challenging. (5)

Subjects consumed BCAAs or a placebo before morning exercise sessions. Every ten minutes during the workout, they provided their rates of perceived exertion and mental fatigue — self-reported methods of gauging effort, fatigue, and overall difficulty of a workout.

Although both the placebo group and the BCAA group completed the same amount of work, those who consumed BCAAs reported significantly lower levels of perceived exertion and mental fatigue. In a previous study, researchers had subjects in long distance runners consume BCAAs or a placebo.

Results showed that mental well-being was improved for runners who consumed BCAAs. The data also showed that relatively slower runners had faster completion times than slower runners who had consumed a placebo. (6)

How to Use BCAAs

With any supplement, including BCAAs, dosing and timing can be make-or-break factors that determine whether or not they actually deliver the intended benefits. In the literature reviewed, anywhere from six to 20 grams of BCAAs were used per serving. BCAAs were typically consumed one hour before, during, or immediately after exercise.

From this, we can conclude that it would be effective to follow these guidelines for the benefits discussed. You can experiment with doses in the aforesaid range to see what works for your particular situation based on your training plan, overall nutrition, workout timing, and other individual variables.

For example, you could spend several weeks using six grams before training, while monitoring your rate of progress, general feeling during workouts, and recovery between sessions, before changing to supplementation during workouts. You might also experiment with higher doses, 10 to 15 grams, around workouts that involve higher training volume (more exercises or more sets/reps) or higher training intensities.

During a fat loss phase, higher doses of BCAAs may also be beneficial to support muscle growth and recovery during periods of calorie restriction. (7)

FAQs

As with other nutritional supplements and dietary approaches, there are some misunderstandings that can, and have, arisen regarding BCAAs. Here are some of the most common points of confusion.

The ABCs of BCAAs

There’s significant evidence that BCAAs have been shown to provide several key benefits for gym-goers looking to increase muscle, strength, and/or endurance. Although BCAAs shouldn’t used as a “crutch” for a poorly planned diet, they can deliver an extra edge for situations when your nutrition plan falls short on some nutrients or when your training volume/intensity is high. For reinforced muscle recovery, or even to help fight off any diet or training-related brain fog, consider adding BCAAs to your sports supplement arsenal.

References

1. Shimomura, Y., Inaguma, A., Watanabe, S., Yamamoto, Y., Muramatsu, Y., Bajotto, G., Sato, J., Shimomura, N., Kobayashi, H., & Mawatari, K. (2010). Branched-Chain Amino Acid Supplementation Before Squat Exercise and Delayed-Onset Muscle Soreness, International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 20(3), 236-244. Retrieved Jun 5, 2023, from https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.20.3.236
2. Ra, S. G., Miyazaki, T., Kojima, R., Komine, S., Ishikura, K., Kawanaka, K., Honda, A., Matsuzaki, Y., & Ohmori, H. (2018). Effect of BCAA supplement timing on exercise-induced muscle soreness and damage: a pilot placebo-controlled double-blind study. The Journal of sports medicine and physical fitness, 58(11), 1582–1591. https://doi.org/10.23736/S0022-4707.17.07638-1
3. Jackman, S. R., Witard, O. C., Philp, A., Wallis, G. A., Baar, K., & Tipton, K. D. (2017). Branched-Chain Amino Acid Ingestion Stimulates Muscle Myofibrillar Protein Synthesis following Resistance Exercise in Humans. Frontiers in physiology, 8, 390. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2017.00390
4. AbuMoh’d, M. F., Matalqah, L., & Al-Abdulla, Z. (2020). Effects of Oral Branched-Chain Amino Acids (BCAAs) Intake on Muscular and Central Fatigue During an Incremental Exercise. Journal of human kinetics, 72, 69–78. https://doi.org/10.2478/hukin-2019-0099
5. BLOMSTRAND, E., HASSMÉN, P., EK, S., EKBLOM, B. and NEWSHOLME, E.A. (1997), Influence of ingesting a solution of branched-chain amino acids on perceived exertion during exercise. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 159: 41-49. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-201X.1997.547327000.x
6. Blomstrand, E., Hassmén, P., Ekblom, B., & Newsholme, E. A. (1991). Administration of branched-chain amino acids during sustained exercise–effects on performance and on plasma concentration of some amino acids. European journal of applied physiology and occupational physiology, 63(2), 83–88. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00235174
7. Wesley David Dudgeon, Elizabeth Page Kelley & Timothy Paul Scheett (2016) In a single-blind, matched group design: branched-chain amino acid supplementation and resistance training maintains lean body mass during a caloric restricted diet, Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 13:1, DOI: 10.1186/s12970-015-0112-9

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The International Society of Sports Nutrition (ISSN) concluded creatine is the most effective performance supplement available for supporting high intensity exercise and muscle mass. (1)(2) The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) has published a similar stance. (3)

Despite favorable position stances in the scientific community, decades of research, and more than 500 peer-reviewed publications, creatine supplementation is still misunderstood. (4) This misunderstanding is largely limited to the uninitiated public, which is a shame because a wide variety of people (even non-lifters) might benefit from creatine supplementation. (5)

If you are unfamiliar with creatine, or if you could use a science-based refresher, it’s best to start with the basics. No, creatine is not a steroid. And, no, it won’t melt your kidneys. In fact, creatine monohydrate, the most common form of supplemental creatine, is generally recognized as safe (G.R.A.S) — an official designation which can only be applied to foods and products which have undergone stringent examination and critical review. (1)(6)(7)

Creatine’s potential benefits extend beyond athletic competition and the gym. Check out the benefits, potential side effects, and common dosing protocols below. 

Editor’s Note: The content on Breaking Muscle is meant to be informative in nature, but it should not be taken as medical advice. When starting a new training regimen, diet plan, and/or supplement protocol, it is always a good idea to consult with a trusted medical professional. We are not a medical resource. The opinions and articles on this site are not intended for use as diagnosis, prevention, and/or treatment of health problems. They are not substitutes for individualized consulting with a qualified medical professional.

Creatine Benefits 

• 7 Benefits of Creatine
• Potential Side Effects
• How to Use Creatine
• Frequently Asked Questions

7 Benefits of Creatine

Creatine supplementation has been studied among individuals young and old, athletes and non-athletes, healthy and injured. Creatine exerts effects on the musculoskeletal system, nervous system (e.g. brain), and endocrine system (e.g. hormones).

Some of these effects are immediate — better lifts, higher work capacity, and cognitive benefits. Others take a bit longer to register — increased muscularity, better recovery between workouts, and potentially increased performance during injury rehabilitation. Find a summary of some of the most exciting benefits of creatine below.

Supercharged Strength

In training studies, creatine supplementation is consistently shown to improve strength. (1) For example, in just six weeks, lifters taking creatine showed greater improvements in chest press and leg press strength compared to those taking a placebo. (8) Strength improvements have been documented with creatine supplementation across the lifespan — from young to very old. (5)(9)

Without getting too deep into biochemistry, creatine supports energy production via the phosphagen system — this is the system that supplies energy for brief high-intensity efforts such as short sprints, jumps, and heavy, low repetition lifts. Creatine is found in foods like meat and seafood, and our bodies are able to synthesize it from other amino acids. However, supplemental creatine appears to be necessary to “top off” or saturate our muscles with creatine. 

Recharged Repeated Efforts

Anyone who has ever sprinted 50-meter repeats or hit high-effort cluster sets knows the phosphagen system takes time to replenish before you’re ready to go again. Creatine supplementation may reduce the time needed to restore energy for the next high intensity set.

The mass action from having extra creatine available drives more rapid re-synthesis of phosphocreatine, the active form of creatine used for quick energy. In addition to benefiting training performance, this potential effect of creatine supplementation may have performance implications in sports like basketball, hockey, football, and volleyball. (1)

More Muscle Mass

Because creatine promotes the ability to move more weight and higher performance across repeated efforts, it should come as no surprise that it ultimately supports gains in muscle mass and improvement in body composition.

Once again, this effect is seen among individuals ranging from young to very old. (1)(9) Bodybuilders, athletes, folks who want to look better at the beach, aging adults wishing to remain independent, and more may benefit from the muscle-building effects of creatine. 

Increased Training Tolerance

Creatine supplementation is known to help improve recovery from a single session of hard exercise. (10)(11) Perhaps surprisingly, some studies show increases in exercise-induced muscle damage following consistent use of creatine. (10)

Researchers attribute this to the other beneficial effects of creatine supplementation — More strength, more muscle, and more high-intensity sets and reps following consistent supplementation intuitively lead to the potential for more muscle damage during workouts. (10)

Altogether, creatine appears to be a great tool for recovery from isolated bouts of exercise, particularly the sort of workouts that involve high-load eccentric (“lengthening”) muscle contractions or novel exercises.

Are you a lifter training for a local 5k, half marathon, or triathlon? Or, maybe you’re a trail runner or cyclist dedicated to building some extra strength? Athletes who train for aerobic- and strength performance in the same workouts may struggle to maintain their strength as aerobic training ramps up. Creatine might help. A study on creatine supplements for men looked at strength-trained men taking either creatine monohydrate or placebo who were put through running workouts prior to leg resistance training.

Only individuals taking creatine were able to maintain their leg press strength-endurance (i.e. repetitions to failure at 80%), while the men taking the placebo showed reduced leg press performance. (12) Concurrent training for aerobic and strength- or physique goals is never going to be easy, but supplemental creatine might play a supporting role. 

Ramped Up Recovery Following Injury

Injured individuals tend to drop or dial back their supplement regimes, often planning to resume once healthy again. But there’s a strong case for creatine supplementation during times of injury. (13) Due to the aforementioned antioxidant-like effect of creatine, its well-established benefits to muscle mass and strength, and other potential effects, supplemental creatine may have promise for those rehabilitating injuries.

Immediately following injury, affected body parts may be rested or even immobilized. Studies assessing the effects of creatine supplementation among individuals experiencing immobilization show protective effects on muscle protein composition and accelerated recovery of strength and size during their return to exercise. (14)(15)

It should be noted, current evidence for creatine during post-surgical rehabilitation is currently not as strong as the evidence for use during true immobilization. (16) While creatine may not be a panacea, banged up athletes, wrecked weekend warriors, and the clinicians who manage their care should consider the potential role of creatine supplementation post-injury.

Free Radicals Scavenged and Scrubbed Out

Free radicals are highly reactive chemicals related to cell damage, aging, and number of disease processes. For better or worse, free radicals are produced during normal metabolism. Fortunately, creatine acts to scavenge and scrub out a type of free radical called reactive oxygen species (ROS). (1)

While more research is needed to substantiate the potential role of creatine in systemic health, cellular aging, and disease, the antioxidant-like role of creatine points to applications for general health and wellness.

Boosted Brain Power

Just as creatine supplementation increases creatine concentrations in muscle, it also increases levels in brain tissue. (5) Just as muscle runs on creatine-based substrate, so to does the brain. Research is mounting in support of a creatine’s potential role as a nootropic, or brain-booster.

Vegetarians on a six-week “maintenance dose” of creatine monohydrate (five grams per day) performed better on tests of working memory and intelligence than they did on a placebo supplement. (17)

Now, one could argue that since a common source of dietary creatine is meat, the vegetarian subjects were simply correcting a deficiency, but the demonstrated link between creatine and brain power remains relevant. 

In two separate studies on sleep-deprived youngsters and rested elderly individuals, McMorris and colleagues reported positive effects of creatine supplementation on working memory and long-term recall. (18)(19) In both studies, “loading doses” of creatine monohydrate were used — 20 grams per day for seven and 14 days, respectively.

Since update of creatine in brain tissue may be less efficient than skeletal muscle, more research needed to establish dosing parameters that best elicit creatine’s cognitive effects. 

Potential Side Effects

Numerous studies have failed to show clinically-relevant side effects of creatine monohydrate supplementation across a wide variety of populations (athletes, children, adults, older adults) and using a wide range of doses (three to 30 grams per day). (1)(20)

Aside from the benefits discussed above, one potentially relevant side effect is increased body mass, which can occur early due to increased water content in the body. 

Early Water Retention

The most commonly reported side effect of creatine is water retention. Studies have reported early increases in body mass during the initial days of creatine supplementation too rapid to be attributed to muscle gain. (4) Instead, these increases appear to be primarily driven by increases in intracellular water, or water found within the cells which plays a key role in cellular health and performance. (21)

In the first three days or so of creatine supplementation (loading dose), it is common to see gains of two to four pounds of water weight. (21) Fortunately, there is probably no reason to worry about medium- or long-term bloating when supplementing with creatine. Intracellular water levels are shown to normalize after weeks to months of use. (4)

How to Use Creatine 

Creatine monohydrate mixes reasonably well with liquid, particularly if you purchase “micronized” powder, which is milled or sifted to smaller particles. Creatine supplementation need not be complicated — standard practices and considerations are provided below.

Steady Supplementation

The most common supplementation protocols involve three to five grams creatine monohydrate per day, or 0.1 gram per kilogram bodyweight. (4)(22) Gradually, creatine levels in muscle cells will increase above baseline and individuals will likely begin to realize the benefits discussed above.

This dosing protocol is referred to as a “maintenance dose,” because once muscle tissues reach creatine saturation, ongoing supplementation at this dose is likely to maintain high or maximum levels. Although about one-third of studies on creatine supplementation involve only a maintenance dose, just as many incorporate a loading dose to “jumpstart” the benefits. 

Consider a Loading Dose

With typical creatine doses (i.e. three to five grams per day), it may take weeks before muscles are saturated. Therefore, a “loading dose” is often recommended to accelerate this process. (1)(22) The most common creatine monohydrate loading protocol involves 20 grams per day for five to seven days. (1)(22)

The daily 20-gram loading dose is typically divided into four equal servings throughout the day (five grams each). The loading dose is typically followed by a maintenance dose of three to five grams per day (or 0.1 gram per kilogram bodyweight). 

Take with Food

Although creatine taken without other foods has been shown to effectively increase total muscle creatine levels, taking either with carbohydrates or with carbohydrates and protein appear to improve retention. (23)(24) Shoot for about 95 grams of carbohydrate or 45 to 48 grams each carbohydrate and protein. (25)

Common carbohydrate sources used in creatine studies are dextrose and glucose. Although studies commonly use powdered dextrose or glucose, these carbs are found in starchy foods and non-fruit sugars (i.e. corn flour, pastas, rice). A convenient protein source may be a post-workout protein powder.

Consistent Use vs. Cycling

Little scholarly evidence currently informs whether creatine should be cycled (e.g. eight to 12 weeks “on,” followed by four to six weeks “off”) or taken consistently at a maintenance dose. Mechanistically, there does not seem to be a strong rationale behind cycling creatine — Again, creatine is not a steroid, so there is not a risk of “resistance” as a result of prolonged use. 

Long-term studies illustrate the safety of consistent creatine supplementation for as long as five years of consistent use. (1) Moreover, since excess creatine is ultimately excreted in the urine (similar to vitamin C), the risk of “overdose” appears low. (25) 

Should one decide to “cycle off” creatine, they are still likely to experience benefits for weeks, even months following your last dose.

FAQs

G.R.A.S. for Mass (with a Disclaimer)

Few, if any, supplements are as well-studied as creatine monohydrate. The scientific research is virtually overwhelming, but if you’re still searching for an anecdote, I’ve taken a creatine monohydrate maintenance dose for over 10 years with minimal interruptions. My wife, my mother, and, occasionally, even my dog supplement with creatine monohydrate — it’s unlikely many lifters would be comfortable giving other sports supplements to any one of those three case studies, let alone all three.

But this article should not be considered an endorsement or nutritional advice — it is simply a brief review of relevant literature. Consult your physician, sports dietician, or veterinarian for individualized advice.

References

1. Kreider, R. B., et al. (2017). International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport, and medicine. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 14(1), 18.
2. Kerksick, C. M., et al. (2018). ISSN exercise & sports nutrition review update: research & recommendations. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 15(1), 38.
3. Thomas, D. T., et al. (2016). Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, Dietitians of Canada, and the American College of Sports Medicine: nutrition and athletic performance. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 116(3), 501-528.
4. Antonio, J., et al. (2021). Common questions and misconceptions about creatine supplementation: what does the scientific evidence really show?. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 18(1), 13.
5. Rawson, E. S., & Venezia, A. C. (2011). Use of creatine in the elderly and evidence for effects on cognitive function in young and old. Amino Acids, 40, 1349-1362.
6. U.S. Food & Drug Administration. GRAS Notices. Available online: https://www.fda.gov/media/143525/download (Accessed April 17, 2023).
7. Kreider, R. B.,et al. (2022). Bioavailability, efficacy, safety, and regulatory status of creatine and related compounds: A critical review. Nutrients, 14(5), 1035.
8. Mills, S., et al. (2020). Effects of creatine supplementation during resistance training sessions in physically active young adults. Nutrients, 12(6), 1880.
9. Devries, M. C., & Phillips, S. M. (2014). Creatine supplementation during resistance training in older adults—a meta-analysis. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 46(6), 1194-1203.
10. Doma, K., et al. (2022). The paradoxical effect of creatine monohydrate on muscle damage markers: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Medicine, 52(7), 1623-1645.
11. Cooke, M. B., et al. (2009). Creatine supplementation enhances muscle force recovery after eccentrically-induced muscle damage in healthy individuals. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 6(1), 13.
12. de Salles Painelli, V., et al. (2014). Creatine supplementation prevents acute strength loss induced by concurrent exercise. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 114(8), 1749-1755.
13. Tack, C. (2016). Dietary supplementation during musculoskeletal injury: Protein and creatine. Strength & Conditioning Journal, 38(1), 22-26.
14. Elosegui, S., et al. (2022). Interaction between caffeine and creatine when used as concurrent ergogenic supplements: a systematic review. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 32(4), 285-295.
15. Hespel, P., et al. (2001). Oral creatine supplementation facilitates the rehabilitation of disuse atrophy and alters the expression of muscle myogenic factors in humans. The Journal of Physiology, 536(2), 625-633.
16. Mistry, D., Lee, P., & Gee, T. (2022). Systematic review for protein and creatine supplements in peri-operative period in elective musculoskeletal surgery-knee and hip replacement. Journal of Arthritis, 11(1), 6-10.
17. Rae, C., et al. (2003). Oral creatine monohydrate supplementation improves brain performance: a double–blind, placebo–controlled, cross–over trial. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 270(1529), 2147-2150.
18. McMorris, T., et al. (2007). Creatine supplementation, sleep deprivation, cortisol, melatonin and behavior. Physiology & Behavior, 90(1), 21-28.
19. McMorris, T., et al. (2007). Creatine supplementation and cognitive performance in elderly individuals. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 14(5), 517-528.
20. Kim, H. J., et al. (2011). Studies on the safety of creatine supplementation. Amino acids, 40, 1409-1418.
21. Ziegenfuss, T. N., et al. (1998). Acute fluid volume changes in men during three days of creatine supplementation. Journal of Exercise Physiology, 1(3), 1-9.
22. de Guingand, D. L., et al. (2020). Risk of adverse outcomes in females taking oral creatine monohydrate: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients, 12(6), 1780.
23. Greenwood, M., et al. (2003). Differences in creatine retention among three nutritional formulations of oral creatine supplements. Journal of Exercise Physiology Online, 6(2), 37-43.
24. Preen, D., et al. (2003). Creatine supplementation: a comparison of loading and maintenance protocols on creatine uptake by human skeletal muscle. International journal of sport nutrition and exercise metabolism, 13(1), 97-111.
25. Naderi, A., et al. (2016). Timing, optimal dose and intake duration of dietary supplements with evidence-based use in sports nutrition. Journal of Exercise Nutrition & Biochemistry, 20(4), 1.
26. Van der Merwe, J., et al. (2009). Three weeks of creatine monohydrate supplementation affects dihydrotestosterone to testosterone ratio in college-aged rugby players. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine, 19(5), 399-404.
27. Elosegui, S., et al. (2022). Interaction between caffeine and creatine when used as concurrent ergogenic supplements: a systematic review. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 32(4), 285-295.
28. Trexler, E. T., & Smith-Ryan, A. E. (2015). Creatine and caffeine: considerations for concurrent supplementation. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 25(6), 607-623.
29. Stout, J. R. (2006). Effects of twenty-eight days of beta-alanine and creatine monohydrate supplementation on the physical working capacity at neuromuscular fatigue threshold. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 20(4), 928-931.
30. Preen, D., et al. (2003). Creatine supplementation: a comparison of loading and maintenance protocols on creatine uptake by human skeletal muscle. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 13(1), 97-111.

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Due to their prevalence within gym culture and notable performance-boosting effects, everybody has their go to pre-workout supplements whether it’s a simple cup of coffee (aka “caffeine”) or a scoop of the latest tropical punch-flavored, ultra-secret-ingredient formula.

The world of pre-workouts can be intimidating, sometimes rightfully so. You don’t want to spend more money than you have to. You don’t want to choose an ineffective formula. And you definitely don’t want to take something that makes you so jittery, you end up doing push-ups on the floor of the emergency room.

Here’s what to know about some of the most popular pre-workouts available, so you can approach your pre-training supplementation with a better idea of what should and shouldn’t be in there.

What Does a Pre-Workout Do?

• Potential Benefits
• Potential Drawbacks
• 10 Most Common Pre-Workout Ingredients
• How to Use a Pre-Workout 

Potential Benefits of Using a Pre-Workout 

Pre-workout supplements can be a game changer for many people. It’s a staple supplement category for many lifters, whether it’s something used before every workout or only when the planned session calls for it. It’s not necessary, but for lifters who want a high-performance edge, having a go to pre-workout is ideal.

Increased Motivation and Focus

A good pre-workout can help to get you in the right mindset on days when you’re paying more attention to the playlist in your headphones than the barbell in your hands. Even the most dedicated lifter has days when they’re just not feeling it, and a good pre-workout may be able to fill the gap.

Certain pre-workout ingredients have been shown to improve focus, concentration, even your mood. (1)(2) This can carry over to greater general energy levels, allowing you to attack the training session with higher intensity, as well as potentially better attention to technique.

You might also notice a better mind-muscle connection during certain exercises, which can help to recruit more muscle fibers and trigger greater muscle growth. (3)

Improved Strength, Power, and Endurance

Physiologically, a pre-workout can directly boost your performance in the gym by improving strength, increasing power output, or increasing endurance and delaying fatigue — all of which can translate to better training adaptations and improved results. (4)(5)(6)

Whether it’s a stimulant to create a stronger muscle fiber contraction or an ingredient to decrease your required rest periods, pre-workouts can have some significant and impactful influence on your training session. (7)

Cumulatively, these performance benefits can yield greater results from training. However, that doesn’t mean you should, or need to, rely on pre-workouts consistently to perform at a high level.

Even when used sporadically, these benefits can trigger responses that yield better results than you might otherwise find without strategic supplement usage.

Potential Drawbacks of Using a Pre-Workout

Here are the major concerns you should be on the look out for when purchasing a pre-workout supplement.

Proprietary Blends 

The term “proprietary blend” describes a mixture of ingredients that is unique to a particular supplement brand. Unlike more transparent labeling practices which list the specific amounts of each ingredient, proprietary blends only list the total amount of the blend without specifying how much of a given ingredient is included in the formula.

This means that you’re not being told exactly how much of each ingredient you are getting. Imagine being served a hamburger: Would you rather be told it’s made of “meat mixture,” 20% ground beef and 80% ground hot dogs, or 100% ground beef? That’s basically the situation with proprietary blends.

With proprietary blends, you don’t know if you’re getting the ingredients you desire in a safe or effective dose. Supplement company take advantage of this gray area and often fill proprietary blends with cheap fillers and less effective ingredients, compared to relatively more expensive and more useful ingredients, to improve their profit margins while compromising on efficacy.

Many supplements also require some degree of troubleshooting, so it might take you one or two (or more) different pre-workout purchases to find a formula your body responds well to. If you are not responding well to a pre-workout, it can be hard to pinpoint an exact reason when you’re dealing with a vague proprietary blend. Learning which ingredients help and hurt you is crucial to finalizing your pre-workout choice.

Stimulant Overload

Stimulants, such as caffeine or yohimbine (and ephedrine before it was banned), are commonly found in pre-workout supplements. These substances work by increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and metabolic rate. While this can provide a temporary boost of energy, it can also put a strain on the cardiovascular system and increase the risk of potentially adverse health effects.

The very ingredients that make pre-workouts useful can also be abused by some individuals, especially if you’re prone to the side effects of stimulants. If you already have a high-level of caffeine intake, are anxiety prone, have high blood pressure, struggle with sleep, you should exercise care when it comes to stimulant-laden pre-workouts.

If you’re not careful with your pre-workout blend or the doses you use, you might not have the most pleasant experience. Palpations in the gym can land you on viral tik tok video or in the hospital. Nobody wants either of those. Always start with a half serving of any pre-workout and increase if appropriate.

10 Most Common Pre-Workout Ingredients

Whether you’re searching for a useful pre-workout formula or are looking to create your own by hand-picking specific compounds, here are some of the most reliable, science-based, effective pre-workout ingredients.

Caffeine

Caffeine is a well-known stimulant that is commonly found in coffee, tea, and other beverages. It is also added to many pre-workout supplements because of its ability to increase alertness and reduce fatigue. (8) Caffeine works by blocking the action of adenosine, a neurotransmitter that promotes sleepiness and relaxation. By blocking adenosine, caffeine makes you more alert. (9)

Without caffeine, many pre-workouts might not even feel like they are working. It’s the primary stimulant that leaves you feeling, “Whoa, I’m not as tired anymore. Time to hit the squat rack.”

Some pre-workout supplements may contain as little as 50 milligrams of caffeine per serving, while others may contain as much as 400 milligrams or more. For context, an “average” cup of coffee contains about 100 milligrams of caffeine.

Generally, you want to err on the lower end when using caffeine as a pre-workout, especially if you’re caffeine-sensitive or prefer a stimulant-free pre-workout (when training later in the day, for example, to avoid interrupting your sleep).

Don’t overlook the compounding effect caffeine can have over the course of a day. Because caffeine has a half-life of roughly five hours, if you have, for example, a large cold brew coffee with an extra shot at 9 a.m., you’re taking in roughly 325 milligrams of caffeine.

By 2 p.m., you’ve still got around 160 milligrams circulating in your system, so re-consider throwing back a pre-workout loaded with another 200+ milligrams of caffeine before your lunch break workout.

Synephrine 

From the depths of Southeast Asia, synephrine is a compound derived from bitter orange. It’s been used to treat digestion and congestion issues, but can also be a stimulant in pre-workout.

Synephrine is a stimulant that is similar in structure and function to ephedrine — another stimulant that was commonly used in dietary supplements before being banned by the FDA in 2004. Like ephedrine, synephrine is thought to increase energy expenditure, reduce appetite, and enhance athletic performance. (10) However, synephrine is considered to be safer than ephedrine because it has a weaker effect on the central nervous system and is less likely to cause adverse side effects.

In pre-workout supplements, synephrine is often combined with caffeine and other ingredients that are intended to increase energy and focus during exercise. These supplements are marketed as a way to improve athletic performance, increase muscle strength, and reduce fatigue. (11)

Research has shown high doses up to 100 to 200 milligrams per day are tolerable depending on body weight, but more common effective doses are closer to 50 milligrams per day.

While synephrine may provide some benefits for exercise performance, it is important to be aware of the potential risks and side effects associated with its use. Some studies have suggested that synephrine can increase blood pressure and heart rate, which can be dangerous for people with certain medical conditions, such as hypertension or heart disease.

Yohimbine

Yohimbine is a potent stimulant that works by blocking alpha-2 adrenergic receptors in the body. This action can increase blood flow which is why many tout it as being helpful with treating erectile dysfunction.

But nonetheless, some people swear by the muscle pumps from yohimbine. Mechanistically, yohimbine has also been shown to increase the release of norepinephrine, a hormone that can stimulate fat metabolism and promote weight loss. Although, actual fat loss recorded in studies seems minimal. (12)

Doses from 10 to 20 milligrams are generally effective, but, similar to other stimulants, yohimbine can pose blood pressure and cardiovascular risks when combined with other stimulants.

Beta-Alanine

Beta-alanine is a non-essential amino acid that is naturally produced by the body. Beta-alanine has gained popularity among athletes and bodybuilders, due to its potential to enhance athletic performance and increase muscle endurance. (13)

Beta-alanine works by increasing the concentration of carnosine in the muscles. Carnosine is a dipeptide found in high concentrations in fast-twitch muscle fibers — the fibers responsible for explosive power and strength. Carnosine acts as a buffer, helping to prevent the build-up of lactic acid in the muscles during exercise.

In layman’s terms, it allows you to push longer and endure higher intensities because it delays muscle-burning. (14) This can lead to improvements in athletic performance, especially in activities that require extended bouts like endurance work or high-rep sets with minimal rest periods. It’s also known for producing a “tingly” feeling which can be hit or miss for people. Two to five grams per day have been shown to be effective.

Highly Branched Cyclic Dextrin

Highly branched cyclic dextrin is essentially pure carbohydrates for performance. Unlike many other types of carbohydrates, cyclic dextrin is “highly branched” which simply means it is rapidly absorbed by the body.

It provides your body fast-acting carbs to replenish muscle and liver glycogen while maintaining blood glucose levels. The ergogenic effects of carbohydrates are well-established, especially for high intensity interval training or endurance training. (15)

For some of your more intense workouts, this is a useful ingredient, especially when you don’t want to stomach carbohydrate-dense foods like potatoes or rice near your training session. As a carb source, as little as 15 grams per workout have been shown to be beneficial.

Citrulline 

Citrulline is a non-essential amino acid found in watermelon and certain other fruits. If you’ve ever overheard locker room advice about drinking watermelon or pomegranate juice before a workout, there is actually some truth to that.

Citrulline is known to stimulate nitric oxide, which improves blood flow, increases aerobic performance, and gives you those tremendous pumps everybody talks about. (16)

Citrulline has ergogenic properties making it a seemingly perfect pre-workout ingredient. To increase nitric oxide production, six grams is the minimum recommended dose. Depending on your body weight and individual metabolism, you might need doses as high as eight or 12 grams to get noticeably bigger pumps.

BCAAS or Amino Acids 

Many pre-workout supplements will have amino acids or branched chain amino acids. While these amino acids can be useful, most people already get plenty in a protein-sufficient diet.

Having incomplete amino acids will always be inferior to a complete protein like whey. These standalone amino acid formulas in pre-workouts often significantly spike the price of your pre-workout while providing little benefit.

If you want extra calories in your pre-workout, you’re better off opting for carbs like highly branched cyclic dextrin instead, which will bring along improved performance.

L-Tyrosine 

L-tyrosine is a non-essential amino acid that is found in many protein-rich foods, including meat, fish, and dairy products. It has gained popularity as an ingredient in pre-workout supplements due to its potential to enhance mental and physical performance. (17)

L-tyrosine works by increasing the production of neurotransmitters in the brain, such as dopamine and norepinephrine. These neurotransmitters are important for mood, motivation, and focus, and they play a key role in regulating the body’s stress response. By increasing the production of these neurotransmitters, L-tyrosine can help to improve mental focus during exercise.

However, L-tyrosine seems to primarily have a noticeable effect in stressful, anxious, or sleep-deprived scenarios. It could be considered the “sleep-deprived saver” — it might not make a big difference in your usual routine on days when you have sufficient sleep, but if your night’s sleep pattern is disrupted, it may be more beneficial. The effective dose seems to be between 500 to 2,000 milligrams depending on your body weight.

L-Theanine

L-theanine is an amino acid commonly found in certain tea leaves. L-theanine works by increasing the production of neurotransmitters in the brain, particularly gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). (18) GABA is a calming neurotransmitter that helps to reduce feelings of anxiety and stress.

It has many cognitive benefits as well. It doesn’t sedate or make you tired, but it could be seen as more of a “downer,” compared to over-the-top stimulants working as “uppers” as they ramp up your nervous system. Theanine generally provides a more mellow energy and is often added to pre-workouts to serve as a way to add more performance clarity while reducing the jittery side effects of stimulants like caffeine.

L-theanine also has a relatively positive safety profile at any dose, but around 300 milligrams is recommended as a minimum effective dosage.

Creatine Monohydrate

Creatine is an extremely popular ingredient, considered one of the most thoroughly researched sports supplements in the field, known for its ability to enhance physical performance and muscle growth. (19)(20) It is a naturally occurring compound that is found in several animal products such as red meat and fish.

Creatine works by increasing the body’s levels of phosphocreatine, which is used to produce energy during high-intensity exercise. By increasing the body’s stores of phosphocreatine, creatine can help to improve athletic performance, increase strength, and reduce fatigue. It’s even been shown to boost cognitive function and general brain health. (21)

It also draws water into your muscles cells, signaling for anabolic processes. It’s almost like the strength and hypertrophy version of beta-alanine. Despite its common everyday use and scientific reliability, creatine only works once your muscles are fully saturated. This process takes a couple weeks of consistent use.

If you don’t take your pre-workout daily, you will have a hard time leveraging creatine’s benefits. Many brands also add creatine to spike up the price of their pre-workout, due to the “name recognition” of the ingredient, even though creatine on its own is relatively inexpensive.

While it might be more convenient to have it in your pre-workout, a better approach is to supplement with creatine separately, using a standalone creatine monohydrate powder. This is a way to save money while maximizing creatine stores within the muscles, since you can take creatine daily without any additional pre-workout ingredients.

How to Use Pre-Workouts

One of the most overlooked aspects to pre-workouts is taste. Make sure it tastes good, so you’ll actually want to take it, and make sure you feel energized without your blood pressure exploding or your sleep-quality tanking.

Be on the lookout for a pre-workout that has the ingredients you want in the doses you need, and be careful about the number of stimulants in them. Whenever possible, avoid proprietary blends.

For most ingredients to work well and be properly digested and absorbed, take your pre-workout 30 to 60 minutes before your workout. Most people just take it before they leave for the gym, regardless of timeframe. Worse, they might quickly down a pre-workout in the gym’s parking lot while they’re loading up their favorite playlist.

The only other thing you have to consider is how often you take a pre-workout. For some lifters, taking a pre-workout boost before every workout has become a part of gym life — just another ritual like packing your gym bag or filling your water bottle.

Others prefer to take a pre-workout only on days they’re dragging and need a good pump or an extra boost to hit a new PR. This latter approach should help to make sure you don’t desensitize yourself to any of the ingredients, especially stimulants like caffeine, which can quickly lose it’s effects if taken too often in high doses. (22)

Pre-workouts can also be useful if you train fasted, and they may be less needed if you train well-fed. The carbohydrate, sodium, and nutrient component of your pre-workout meal can improve your performance, mental alertness, and muscle pumps even without the stimulating jitters.

Like anything else in fitness, you have to experiment with what works best for you when it comes to taking a pre-workout. As you find with most things in the gym, a bit of patience, combined with well-informed periods of trial and error, should gradually steer you in the right direction of safe and effective goal-focused results.

References

1. Jung, Y. P., Earnest, C. P., Koozehchian, M., Galvan, E., Dalton, R., Walker, D., Rasmussen, C., Murano, P. S., Greenwood, M., & Kreider, R. B. (2017). Effects of acute ingestion of a pre-workout dietary supplement with and without p-synephrine on resting energy expenditure, cognitive function and exercise performance. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 14, 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-016-0159-2
2. Curtis, J., Evans, C., Mekhail, V., Czartoryski, P., Santana, J. C., & Antonio, J. (2022). The Effects of a Pre-workout Supplement on Measures of Alertness, Mood, and Lower-Extremity Power. Cureus, 14(5), e24877. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.24877
3. Calatayud, J., Vinstrup, J., Jakobsen, M. D., Sundstrup, E., Brandt, M., Jay, K., Colado, J. C., & Andersen, L. L. (2016). Importance of mind-muscle connection during progressive resistance training. European journal of applied physiology, 116(3), 527–533. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-015-3305-7
4. Martinez, N., Campbell, B., Franek, M., Buchanan, L., & Colquhoun, R. (2016). The effect of acute pre-workout supplementation on power and strength performance. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 13, 29. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-016-0138-7
5. Schwarz, N. A., , PhD, & McKinley-Barnard, S. K., , PhD (2020). Acute Oral Ingestion of a Multi-ingredient Preworkout Supplement Increases Exercise Performance and Alters Postexercise Hormone Responses: A Randomized Crossover, Double-Blinded, Placebo-Controlled Trial. Journal of dietary supplements, 17(2), 211–226. https://doi.org/10.1080/19390211.2018.1498963
6. Beck, T. W., Housh, T. J., Schmidt, R. J., Johnson, G. O., Housh, D. J., Coburn, J. W., & Malek, M. H. (2006). The acute effects of a caffeine-containing supplement on strength, muscular endurance, and anaerobic capabilities. Journal of strength and conditioning research, 20(3), 506–510. https://doi.org/10.1519/18285.1
7. Martinez, N., Campbell, B., Franek, M. et al. The effect of acute pre-workout supplementation on power and strength performance. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 13, 29 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-016-0138-7
8. Ruxton, C.H.S. (2008), The impact of caffeine on mood, cognitive function, performance and hydration: a review of benefits and risks. Nutrition Bulletin, 33: 15-25. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-3010.2007.00665.x
9. Delleli, S., Ouergui, I., Messaoudi, H., Trabelsi, K., Ammar, A., Glenn, J. M., & Chtourou, H. (2022). Acute Effects of Caffeine Supplementation on Physical Performance, Physiological Responses, Perceived Exertion, and Technical-Tactical Skills in Combat Sports: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutrients, 14(14), 2996. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14142996
10. Stohs, S. J., Preuss, H. G., & Shara, M. (2012). A review of the human clinical studies involving Citrus aurantium (bitter orange) extract and its primary protoalkaloid p-synephrine. International journal of medical sciences, 9(7), 527–538. https://doi.org/10.7150/ijms.4446
11. Ruiz-Moreno, C., Del Coso, J., Giráldez-Costas, V., González-García, J., & Gutiérrez-Hellín, J. (2021). Effects of p-Synephrine during Exercise: A Brief Narrative Review. Nutrients, 13(1), 233. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13010233
12. Ostojic S. M. (2006). Yohimbine: the effects on body composition and exercise performance in soccer players. Research in sports medicine (Print), 14(4), 289–299. https://doi.org/10.1080/15438620600987106
13. Trexler, E. T., Smith-Ryan, A. E., Stout, J. R., Hoffman, J. R., Wilborn, C. D., Sale, C., . . . Antonio, J. (2015). International society of sports nutrition position stand: Beta-Alanine. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 12(1), 30. doi: 10.1186/s12970-015-0090-y
14. Derave, W., Everaert, I., Beeckman, S., & Baguet, A. (2010). Muscle carnosine metabolism and beta-alanine supplementation in relation to exercise and training. Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.), 40(3), 247–263. https://doi.org/10.2165/11530310-000000000-00000
15. Furuyashiki, T., Tanimoto, H., Yokoyama, Y., Kitaura, Y., Kuriki, T., & Shimomura, Y. (2014). Effects of ingesting highly branched cyclic dextrin during endurance exercise on rating of perceived exertion and blood components associated with energy metabolism. Bioscience, biotechnology, and biochemistry, 78(12), 2117–2119. https://doi.org/10.1080/09168451.2014.943654
16. Pérez-Guisado, J., & Jakeman, P. M. (2016). Citrulline malate enhances athletic anaerobic performance and relieves muscle soreness. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 30(10), 2937-2942. doi: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000001591
17. Stecker, R. A., Harty, P. S., Cottet, M. L., & Jagim, A. R. (2019). The effects of tyrosine supplementation on clinical and healthy populations under stress or cognitive demands – a review. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 16(1), 1-14. doi: 10.1186/s12970-019-0318-5.
18. Nobre, A. C., Rao, A., & Owen, G. N. (2008). L-theanine, a natural constituent in tea, and its effect on mental state. Asia Pacific journal of clinical nutrition, 17 Suppl 1, 167–168.
19. Wu, Shih-Hao, et al. “Creatine Supplementation for Muscle Growth: A Scoping Review of Randomized Clinical Trials from 2012 to 2021.” Nutrients, U.S. National Library of Medicine, 16 Mar. 2022, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8949037/
20. Chilibeck, P. D., Kaviani, M., Candow, D. G., & Zello, G. A. (2017). Effect of creatine supplementation during resistance training on lean tissue mass and muscular strength in older adults: a meta-analysis. Open access journal of sports medicine, 8, 213–226. https://doi.org/10.2147/OAJSM.S123529
21. Rawson, E. S., & Venezia, A. C. (2011). Use of creatine in the elderly and evidence for effects on cognitive function in young and old. Amino acids, 40(5), 1349–1362. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00726-011-0855-9
22. Quiquempoix, M., Drogou, C., Erblang, M., Van Beers, P., Guillard, M., Tardo-Dino, P. E., Rabat, A., Léger, D., Chennaoui, M., Gomez-Merino, D., Sauvet, F., & Percaf Investigator Group (2023). Relationship between Habitual Caffeine Consumption, Attentional Performance, and Individual Alpha Frequency during Total Sleep Deprivation. International journal of environmental research and public health, 20(6), 4971. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20064971

Featured Image: MARKOFIT PRODUCTION / Shutterstock

The post What Does a Pre-Workout Do? appeared first on Breaking Muscle.

On Jan. 21, 2023, a short video interview with Majors and other “Magazine Dreams” cast members appeared on Variety’s website. Among some of the more notable tidbits, the superstar actor revealed that he ate 6,100 calories daily for four consecutive months to transform into fictional amateur bodybuilder Killian Maddox. It’s an illuminating insight into a professional who will seemingly pull out all the stops to pay proper homage to a challenging sport. A video interview with Deadline Hollywood below has Majors further discussing parts of his preparatory process.

The reason Majors ate this much and stayed this committed to his role appeared to be relatively simple: he wanted his playing Maddox to be believable in the context of bodybuilding’s notable rigors. Plus, after already training to transform into up-and-coming boxer Damian “Dame” Anderson in Creed III — which releases in the United States on Mar. 3, 2023 — Majors’ transition into another athletic on-screen role seemed to be seamless.

“I’m 6 feet tall. I’m 202 pounds,” Majors told Variety. “In order to sustain that and to grow that, you have to eat as much protein that you weigh. I ate 6,100 calories a day for about four months.”

As for how he actually trained, Majors stuck to his guns. As a performer known for diving head-on into his gigs, the man with a high-level athletic background noted that he once again went full steam ahead for “Magazine Dreams.”

“The normal bodybuilder works out two times a day,” Majors elaborated to Variety. “I’m playing Killian Maddox. … Playing him you don’t [expletive] around. What ended up happening is, I would train two hours, two times a day for the movie, and a third time after wrap [at the end of the filming day]. Meanwhile, you eat six times a day. Lots of chicken. Lots of elk, that’s just for me. I like it.”

In an era of CGI-filled film, it would be understandably easy if a performer simply went through the motions to portray an on-screen bodybuilder. For Majors, as a ripped fictional fitness titan and physically dominant boxer, staying dedicated seems to be the norm. At this pace, he may develop a reputation as an actor who uses his entire body to tell any given story.

Featured image: IMDb on YouTube

The post Actor Jonathan Majors Ate 6,100 Calories a Day to Become a Bodybuilder in “Magazine Dreams” appeared first on Breaking Muscle.

That certainly didn’t stop four-time World’s Strongest Man Brian Shaw and 2017 World’s Strongest Man Eddie Hall from training legs (or at least attempting to) at a Planet Fitness in Colorado. Shaw posted a video of the session on his YouTube channel, which you can see below:

[Related: Hammer Curls vs. Biceps Curls: The Battle for Bigger Arms]

Eddie Hall and Brian Shaw Head to Planet Fitness

Since most Planet Fitness gyms don’t have squat racks, the pair started their workout with Smith machine squats. Thanks to the sheer width of their frames, it took Hall and Shaw some time to get used to the machine. In the end, they both worked up to five 45-pound plates on each side of the bar, even though Shaw had to hold onto the other end of the machine to execute his squats properly.

The duo also tried their hands at an abdominal crunch machine before moving to the leg press. They eventually loaded up the machine with six 45-pound plates on each side and another on top of the sled, which they moved with ease. Next up were the leg extensions, adductor, and abductor machines. 

[Related: 2022 Down Under Championship Results — Madeline Sturt and Jay Crouch are Triumphant]

The final exercise of the day was a personal challenge between the two strongmen. They entered the gym’s circuit training room and performed one rep on each of the 20 stations with max weight, and the man who could complete all 20 in the fastest time won. Hall finished in 1:15.09, while Shaw was slightly behind at 1:19.

Shaw is in the middle of an off-season, but Hall is nearing a return to competitive strongman after five years. He’s getting ready to serve as captain of Team UK at the World’s Strongest Nation contest, taking place on Saturday, Nov. 26, 2022, in Liverpool, England. The captain for Team USA in that competition will be the 2019 World’s Strongest Man champion, Martins Licis.

Featured Image: Brian Shaw on YouTube

The post Strongmen Eddie Hall and Brian Shaw Attempt to Train Legs at a Planet Fitness appeared first on Breaking Muscle.

Let’s be honest: Nutrition is often less glamorous than training. Straining and grinding in the gym is more appealing than deciding whether you should have the double-chicken burrito bowl with half rice and half beans or the double-steak burrito with no rice and extra guac.

Plenty of well-designed training plans have been steered off-track because they weren’t supported by an equally well-designed nutrition plan.

Getting enough calories, carbs, protein, and fats can mean the difference between packing on size and hitting PRs or spinning your wheels and burning out. Here’s how to set up a “diet plan” that will help you build muscle and move heavier weights.

• Find Your Calorie Requirements
• Macros for Muscle and Strength
• Meal Timing and Frequency
• The Anabolic Window Myth
• Tips to Eat for Muscle and Strength

Calorie Requirements

Your total calorie intake is the be-all, end-all of gaining muscular body weight. No matter how finely tuned your workout program is, no matter how many grams of protein you’re eating every day, if your total calories are lacking, your body simply won’t have the raw materials to create new muscle tissue. (1)

Fortunately, nudging your body into growth-mode doesn’t have to involve 10-egg omelets, straight olive oil shooters, or gut-busting blender bombs loaded with peanut butter, oats, and whole milk. You can flip the muscle-building switch by adding roughly 300 to 500 calories per day. (2)

It could be as simple as eating your standard menu and adding one big glass of milk with an extra scoop of protein powder or having an after-lunch snack of a tuna salad sandwich and an apple. While that might not sound like some people’s idea of a traditional “bulking diet,” it’s a ballpark number that reinforces your ability to tackle the hardest training sessions, lift heavier, recover more completely, and build lean body mass (muscle). (3)

Perhaps more importantly, this surplus intake can also help to avoid potential drawbacks from training with insufficient calories. Too much training on too few calories can affect everything from workout recovery and performance to hormone levels and cardiovascular health. (4)

Just be sure not to tip the scales, literally, too far in your pursuit of size. Research has shown that a caloric surplus can be beneficial for size and strength, but there’s a point of diminishing returns where you gain more body fat than muscle, and strength gains won’t keep pace with your increasing body weight, which reduces your overall power and relative strength. (1)

To stay in the “enough, but not too much” zone, you’ll want to do a little math. Your body weight (in pounds) x 25 is a rough guideline to find your maximum intake. Anything beyond that point is likely going to push you into the red zone of low-quality gains.

Start with a more reasonable and sustainable addition of just a few hundred calories on top of your current daily diet and monitor your progress to adjust weekly or biweekly as needed.

Macros for Muscle and Strength

If calories were a sports car, macronutrients would be the tires, steering wheel, and engine — protein, carbohydrates, and fats are three essential components that determine whether or not you’ll actually get you where you want to go.

Every gram of protein and carbohydrate each contain four calories, while every gram of fat contains nine calories. While you might instinctively think “more fats equals more calories equals more size,” it’s not that simple.

Specific attention to your macronutrient breakdown will determine if your increased body weight comes from gaining lean muscle mass or simply gaining body fat. (5)

Protein

Protein is fundamentally “the muscle macro.” It’s composed of amino acids which are required for creating new muscle tissue. In fact, muscle protein synthesis and muscle protein breakdown are the two primary processes triggered by weight training which will determine whether or not you build muscle. (6)

Because protein plays such a significant role in muscle-building, it’s critical that you take in enough each day. One gram of protein per pound of bodyweight is a long-touted guideline for daily intake. Although an abundance of research suggests a more accurate .74 grams per pound of bodyweight to be the upper limit, beyond which, higher protein intake doesn’t trigger any additional growth.(7)

Sorry carnivores, but triple-bodyweight protein intake won’t lead to triple the gains. However, interestingly, when a calorie surplus includes a very high protein intake, the protein was shown to have what researchers called “a protective effect against fat gain during times of energy surplus.” (5) Translation: high calories with high protein leads to muscle growth and relatively less fat gain.

While animal-based products (meat, poultry, fish, eggs, and dairy) are the most common and most efficiently absorbed sources of protein, vegan and vegetarian foods have shown to be equally effective for supporting performance and recovery, but slightly less efficient for supporting muscle growth. (8)

Carbohydrates

Some nutrition plans manipulate carbohydrates because it can be an efficient way to trigger fat loss, but when it comes to building muscle and fueling weight training workouts, carbs are sometimes not given particular attention.

Having ample carbs throughout the day can support muscle growth by decreasing muscle protein breakdown. Carbs also provide energy and endurance during relatively high volume training (plenty of exercises, sets, and/or reps). (9)

Ideally, aim for a total carb intake of two to three grams per pound of bodyweight per day to support performance, growth, and recovery. (10) If you’re weight training five or more days per week, lean towards a higher intake. If you’re training less often or following a low-volume training plan, your needs will be relatively lower.

While the majority of your carbs should come from whole-food sources like grains, legumes, tubers, and fruit, you should monitor the intake of simple carbs (sugar). Particularly when combined with excess calories, relatively high sugar intake is associated with fat gain. Keeping your simple sugar intake to roughly 10% of your daily calories will work towards minimizing this unwanted gain. (11)

Fats

Because they’re the most calorie-dense macronutrient, dietary fats require a keen approach when you’re increasing calories. It’s dangerously easy to overflow your calorie intake from excessively high fats.

Certain types of fats, specifically Omega-3s found in fish, have been shown to support muscle protein synthesis which can lead to more muscle growth. (12) Adequate fat intake is also important for supporting hormone levels, cardiovascular health, and your immune system. (13)

As part of a muscle-building, strength-boosting plan, aim to keep your fat intake 30% to 40% of your total daily calories. For example, if you’re eating 3,000 calories per day, that’s 900 to 1200 calories from fat. Because one gram of fat contains nine calories, it ends up at roughly 100 to 130 grams per day.

For optimal results, stick with natural animal fats (those found in animal-based protein sources), as well as nuts, olives, avocados, and coconuts. Overly processed liquid fats, like many bottled vegetable oils, can be counterproductive for long-term health and performance.

Meal Timing and Frequency

Three big, hearty meals per day has been a time-tested approach for old school bodybuilders, strongmen, and strength athletes. Eating smaller meals more frequently — as often as every two or three hours — is a relatively new approach modern lifters have had some success with.

A higher meal frequency is typically associated with fat loss plans, though it’s debatably effective. (14) The concept can also be applied to lifters wanting to gain muscular body weight.

One significant factor is the individual’s habits, mindset, and overall digestion. Some lifters find it more practical to eat three relatively large meals per day, while others may have trouble regaining their appetite for lunch several hours after a big breakfast.

In the latter case, eating fewer calories more often is a way to reach the daily calorie target with minimal discomfort. The compromise with high-frequency meals is the necessity of interrupting your daily routine on a consistent basis to unpack and inhale a small meal.

Both methods can be effective as long as they deliver the target daily nutrition. However, extremely low-frequency eating — one or two meals per day — can make it more challenging to reach the daily calorie and macro goal. This reduced meal approach is also less efficient for stimulating protein synthesis, which makes it less effective for building muscle. (15)

The Anabolic Window Myth

Most experienced lifters have heard about “the anabolic window” — the crucial time period immediately after weight training where your body has been stimulated to such a degree that it will transmogrify any and all calories into heaps of new muscle tissue.

Bodybuilders in the 1950s would drink whole milk during their workouts, hardcore powerlifters have eaten peanut butter and jelly sandwiches between sets, and modern day lifters would sip on half-gallon concoctions of the latest scientific formulas. All in the hopes of catching the crucial window.

While it’s true that your body is in a highly responsive state during and immediately after a training session, it isn’t nearly as narrow as the “90 minutes or less” mantra that echoes through the gym.

Having protein during a workout was shown to decrease muscle protein breakdown (a good thing for growth). (16) However, rather than a slim 60 or 90-minute “window,” a large amount of research supports a more broad approach that’s highly effective. Having a meal (or drink) containing protein and carbs within a six-hour window of your workout can efficiently maximize muscle protein synthesis and support optimal recovery. (17)

In fact, your body remains ready to efficiently put nutrients to use for recovery and growth for up to 24 hours after hard training. You could, in theory, neglect the “anabolic window” entirely, eat your standard meals at your standard times, and use those protein and carb-laden calories for muscle-building.

Many lifters find their appetite stimulated by intense training, and they tend to drink water during their workouts. Both are quick and simple opportunities to add quality calories to your day with minimal effort and maximum benefit.

Serious Training Needs Serious Eating

If you want maximum results, you can’t just hit it hard in the gym and slack off when you head to your car. At best, you’ll end up spinning your wheels and struggling unnecessarily for every drop of progress. At worst, you’ll end up going backwards because poor recovery will make your workouts harder and harder. If your goals include adding lean muscle and hitting big lifts, you won’t get there until you treat the spice rack as seriously as the squat rack.

Tips to Eat for Muscle and Strength

Still trying to skip the “boring nutrition stuff” and just want some quick takeaway points? No problem. Here are some ‘just do these’ ideas to kickstart new growth and bigger gains.

• Building muscle doesn’t mean gorging. Add 300 to 500 calories per day, mostly from protein. Track progress before adding more calories.
• Know your body and your appetite. Either plan on having “breakfast, lunch, workout shake, and dinner” or eat smaller meals five to seven times per day (having food every two to three hours). Your total calories should remain the same.
• Aim for one gram of protein per pound of bodyweight. Having slightly less is still effective. Eating a bit more protein won’t build“extra muscle,” but may potentially fight against fat gain.
• Aim for two to three grams of carbs per pound of bodyweight, primarily from whole-food sources and relatively low sugar. Using soda and candy as caloric filler may only hurt your physique.
• Set your dietary fat intake at 30% to 40% of your total daily calories, most of which will likely come naturally from your protein sources.
• For maximum results, have a pre-workout meal within three hours of starting your workout, drink protein and carbohydrates during training, and have a post-workout meal within three hours of ending your workout.

References

1. Ribeiro, A. S., Nunes, J. P., Schoenfeld, B. J., Aguiar, A. F., & Cyrino, E. S. (2019). Effects of Different Dietary Energy Intake Following Resistance Training on Muscle Mass and Body Fat in Bodybuilders: A Pilot Study. Journal of human kinetics, 70, 125–134. https://doi.org/10.2478/hukin-2019-0038
2. Slater, G. J., Dieter, B. P., Marsh, D. J., Helms, E. R., Shaw, G., & Iraki, J. (2019). Is an Energy Surplus Required to Maximize Skeletal Muscle Hypertrophy Associated With Resistance Training. Frontiers in nutrition, 6, 131. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2019.00131
3. Garthe, I., Raastad, T., Refsnes, P. E., & Sundgot-Borgen, J. (2013). Effect of nutritional intervention on body composition and performance in elite athletes. European journal of sport science, 13(3), 295–303. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2011.643923
4. Melin, A. K., Heikura, I. A., Tenforde, A., & Mountjoy, M. (2019). Energy Availability in Athletics: Health, Performance, and Physique. International journal of sport nutrition and exercise metabolism, 29(2), 152–164. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.2018-0201
5. Leaf, A., & Antonio, J. (2017). The Effects of Overfeeding on Body Composition: The Role of Macronutrient Composition – A Narrative Review. International journal of exercise science, 10(8), 1275–1296.
6. Stokes, T., Hector, A. J., Morton, R. W., McGlory, C., & Phillips, S. M. (2018). Recent Perspectives Regarding the Role of Dietary Protein for the Promotion of Muscle Hypertrophy with Resistance Exercise Training. Nutrients, 10(2), 180. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10020180
7. Morton, R. W., Murphy, K. T., McKellar, S. R., Schoenfeld, B. J., Henselmans, M., Helms, E., Aragon, A. A., Devries, M. C., Banfield, L., Krieger, J. W., & Phillips, S. M. (2018). A systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression of the effect of protein supplementation on resistance training-induced gains in muscle mass and strength in healthy adults. British journal of sports medicine, 52(6), 376–384. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2017-097608
8. Pohl, A., Schünemann, F., Bersiner, K., & Gehlert, S. (2021). The Impact of Vegan and Vegetarian Diets on Physical Performance and Molecular Signaling in Skeletal Muscle. Nutrients, 13(11), 3884. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13113884
9. Mata, F., Valenzuela, P. L., Gimenez, J., Tur, C., Ferreria, D., Domínguez, R., Sanchez-Oliver, A. J., & Martínez Sanz, J. M. (2019). Carbohydrate Availability and Physical Performance: Physiological Overview and Practical Recommendations. Nutrients, 11(5), 1084. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11051084
10.  Richard B Kreider, Colin D Wilborn, Lem Taylor, Bill Campbell, Anthony L Almada, Rick Collins, Mathew Cooke, Conrad P Earnest, Mike Greenwood, Douglas S Kalman, Chad M Kerksick, Susan M Kleiner, Brian Leutholtz, Hector Lopez, Lonnie M Lowery, Ron Mendel, Abbie Smith, Marie Spano, Robert Wildman, Darryn S Willoughby, Tim N Ziegenfuss & Jose Antonio (2010) ISSN exercise & sport nutrition review: research & recommendations, Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 7:1, DOI: 10.1186/1550-2783-7-7
11.  Te Morenga L, Mallard S, Mann J. Dietary sugars and body weight: systematic review and meta-analyses of randomised controlled trials and cohort studies BMJ 2013; 346 :e7492 doi:10.1136/bmj.e7492
12.  Gordon I. Smith, Philip Atherton, Dominic N. Reeds, B. Selma Mohammed, Debbie Rankin, Michael J. Rennie, Bettina Mittendorfer; Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids augment the muscle protein anabolic response to hyperinsulinaemia–hyperaminoacidaemia in healthy young and middle-aged men and women. Clin Sci (Lond) 1 September 2011; 121 (6): 267–278. doi: https://doi.org/10.1042/CS20100597
13.  Venkatraman JT, Leddy J, Pendergast D. Dietary fats and immune status in athletes: clinical implications. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 2000 Jul;32(7 Suppl):S389-95. DOI: 10.1097/00005768-200007001-00003. PMID: 10910295.
14.  Schoenfeld, B. J., Aragon, A. A., & Krieger, J. W. (2015). Effects of meal frequency on weight loss and body composition: a meta-analysis. Nutrition reviews, 73(2), 69–82. https://doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuu017
15. Schoenfeld, B.J., Aragon, A.A. How much protein can the body use in a single meal for muscle-building? Implications for daily protein distribution. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 15, 10 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-018-0215-1
16. Greenhaff, P. L., Karagounis, L. G., Peirce, N., Simpson, E. J., Hazell, M., Layfield, R., Wackerhage, H., Smith, K., Atherton, P., Selby, A., & Rennie, M. J. (2008). Disassociation between the effects of amino acids and insulin on signaling, ubiquitin ligases, and protein turnover in human muscle. American journal of physiology. Endocrinology and metabolism, 295(3), E595–E604. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.90411.2008
17. Schoenfeld, B. J., & Aragon, A. A. (2018). Is There a Postworkout Anabolic Window of Opportunity for Nutrient Consumption? Clearing up Controversies. The Journal of orthopaedic and sports physical therapy, 48(12), 911–914. https://doi.org/10.2519/jospt.2018.0615

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